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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



THE STORY OF 

OLD EUROPE AND 
YOUNG AMERICA 



By WILLIAM H. MACE 

Professor of History in Syracuse University. Author 

of "A School History of the United Slates," 

"A Primary History," ".4 Beginner's 

History," "Method in History" 

and 

EDWIN P. TANNER 

Associate Professor of History in Syracuse 
University 



Ulus'.rated by 

HOMER W. COLBY, B. F. WILLIAMSON, 
and FRANK T. MERRILL 




RAND McNALLY & COMPANY' 

CHICAGO XEW YORK 



Copyright, IQ13, 
By Rand McNally & Company 



^1 



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AUG 30 /9I5 

©CI.A411,iliJ 



THE TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction 

Why Americans Should Know about Europe i 

How Europe Looks To-Day 2 

America Unknown to the People of Ancient Times; Early Ideas 

of Geography 6 

Why the First European Colonists Came to America .... 9 

How America Receives European Immigrants To-day . . . 1 1 

What the Eastern Nations Gave 

How the Earliest Men in Europe Lived 13 

Civilization Begins in Egypt 14 

Asia, Too, Has Early Civilized Peoples . . . . . . . .20 

How the Hebrews and Phoenicians Helped Civilization ... 22 

What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 

What We Owe to the Greeks 24 

Where the Greeks Lived 26 

The Religion of the Greeks; Gods and Goddesses 29 

The Deeds of the Heroes 31 

The Siege of Troy 33 

How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 

How the Greeks Governed Themselves 37 

Athenians and Spartans 39 

Things Which Brought the Greeks Together 44 

Greece Attacked by the Persians 46 

The Battle of Marathon 47 

How the Spartans Held the Pass at Thermopylae 50 

How Greece Was Saved 53 

Some Things the City of Athens Taught the World 

The Age of Pericles Begins . . . . ' 56 

How Athens Looked in the Age of Pericles 56 

Socrates, the Philosopher 61 

How the Greeks Failed 

The Decline of Greece 63 

How Philip of Macedon Gained Power 64 

The Youth of Alexander the Great 65 

How Alexander Carried Greek Ideas into Asia 67 

The End of Alexander's Empire ,-69 

The Spread of Hellenistic CiviHzation ; Wonders of Alexandria . 70 

The Beginnings of Rome 

The Early Davs of Rome 74 

What the Ronrian Myths Tell 77 

The Plebeians Struggle for Their Rights 80 

The Gauls Take Rome 82 

What Rome Gained b\' Conquest 

Hannibal Threatens Rome 85 

Romans Conquer All Nations .89 

Conquest Does Not Make Rome Better 90 



iv The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

PAGE 

How THE Roman Republic Became the Roman Empire 

Caesar Appears 94 

Caesar Conquers Gaul and Quarrels with Pompey 95 

Caesar Makes Himself Master of Rome 99 

The Death of Caesar 99 

Caesar Augustus Rules loi 

What the Roman Empire Was 102 

How the Romans Lived 

How the City of Rome Looked 105 

What a Roman Triumph Meant . . . '. 109 

Amusements of the Romans no 

The Destruction of Pompeii • . . . .112 

Roman Houses , . ". 114 

How the Romans Lived 116 

New Thoughts in Rome 

Great Roman Writers 120 

The Coming of Christianitj' 124 

How the Early Christians Were Treated 125 

Christianity Triumphs 126 

The Downfall of Rome 

The Decline of the Roman Empire 130 

The Downfall of Rome 132 

The Coming of the Teutons 

What Kind of People the Early Germans Were 135 

Conquests of the German Tribes 139 

Britain Conquered by the Angles and Saxons 141 

How the Teutons Learned from Rome 

The Germans Become Christians ; . 145 

How Missionaries Taught the Germans 147 

Who the Monks Were 149 

Charles the Great Revives Civilization 154 

The Coming of the Northmen 158 

How England Was Made 

Alfred the Great Withstands the Danes 162 

Alfred's Works of Peace 166 

The Normans Conquer England 167 

How Henry H Kept Order in England 172 

King John and Magna Carta 1 76 

How Parliament Grew 180 

The Nobles of the Middle Ages 

Classes of People in the Middle Ages . 185 

How the Nobles Lived 186 

Warfare in the Middle Ages 188 

Warlike Games of the Nobles; the Tournament 189 

What Feudalism Was 190 

Chivalry and Knighthood 194 

The People in the Middle Ages 

How the People Lived 197 

How the Towns Grew 202 

Industry in the Towns 204 

The Beginnings of Commerce 208 



V The Table of Contents 

PAGE 

The Church in the Middle Ages 

The Churches of the Middle Ages . 215 

The Clergy and the Pope 218 

The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 

People Who Were Called Pilgrims 221 

The Cultured Arabs and the Fierce Turks 225 

How the Crusades Began 226 

The First Trained Army 229 

The Wonderful Spear 230 

How the Crusaders Acted 232 

The Second Crusade . 234 

The Third Crusade 234 

Richard and Saladin Good Friends 237 

The Story of the King's Friend 238 

Later Crusades 239 

What the Crusades Did 240 

Marco Polo's Great Journey and His Book 

The Polos' Visit to China 244 

Inventions of the Fifteenth Century 

Early Inventions 247 

Invention of Printing 248 

The Compass 249 

Discovery of Gunpowder and Invention of Cannon .... 250 

The Race for India Begins between Portugal and Spain 

Prince Henry, the Navigator, Seeks an All- Water Route to India 252 
Christopher Columbus, Seeking India, Finds America . . . 254 

Columbus Seeks Aid 255 

The Discovery of America 257 

The Return to Spain 261 

Other Voyages to America 262 

Voyage of the Northmen 262 

Spanish Explorers of the New World 

Why America Was Named for Americus Vespucius .... 265 

Balboa Discovers the Pacific 266 

Magellan Begins His Great Voyage . . ' 267 

Cortes Invades Mexico 269 

A Wonderful Indian City 270 

The Conquest of the Aztecs . 271 

The Richest City in the W^orld 271 

Pizarro Captures the Inca .- 272 

The Spaniards Find Untold Wealth 273 

De Soto's Expedition 273 

Discovery of the Mississippi 274 

Coronado and the Seven Cities of Cibolo 275 

Discovery of the Grand Canon 276 

Discover Great Herds of Crooked-Back Oxen 277 

Meaning of Coronado's Expedition 277 

Opposition to Slavery; the Founding of Missions 

Las Casas, the Enemy of Human Slavery 277 

Missions from Peru to California 279 



vi The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

PAGE 

France against Spain in Europe and America 

French Explorations 282 

The Story of Chevalier Bayard 283 

The French Claim to North America 284 

Huguenot Colony in Florida 285 

Champlain Founds New France 288 

New France Sohdly Built 289 

England the Rival of Spain in Europe and AxMerica 

John Cabot Seeks a Shorter Route to India and Finds North 

America 290 

The Quarrel between the King of England and the King of Spain 291 

The Great Leaders in the Conflict 292 

Henry VIII Becomes Head of the English Church .... 293 

Elizabeth's Plans, and the Puritans 294 

Elizabeth and Mary, Queen of Scots 296 

The Revolt of the Netherlands 297 

William the Silent 299 

Close of the Thirty Years' War 303 

How THE English Sea Dogs Fought the Spanish Sailors and 
Robbed the Spanish Treasure Ships 

The Beginnings of Trouble 305 

Sir Francis Drake 305 

The First Englishman to Circumnavigate the Globe .... 306 

"Singeing the Spanish King's Beard" 307 

The Coming of the Great Armada 308 

A Great Sea Fight 309 

A Crushing Defeat 309 

How Sir Walter Raleigh Won the Queen's Favor 310 

Raleigh Tries to Plant Colonies in America 311 

The Meaning of the Battle with Spain 313 

France and England Fight for Control 313 



A LIST OF THE MAPS 

PAGE 

Modern Europe between 4 and 5 

The Mediterranean in Ancient Times 6 

Map of the Ancient World (about 50 a.d.) 8 

Greater Greece and the Phoenician Colonies . . . between 26 and 27 

The Greek Peninsula 38 

The City of Athens and its Harbor of Piraeus 58 

The Empire of Alexander the Great 71 

A Physical Map of Italy 75 

The Roman Empire at Its Greatest Extent . . . between 102 and 103 
Europe in the time of Charles the Great .... between 156 and 157 

England under the Heptarchy 163 

The Danelagh (or Danelaw) 165 

Medieval Trade Routes to the North from the Mediterranean . facing 212 

The Routes of the Crusaders 233 

Ancient and Medieval Trade Routes to the Orient .... facing 242 

Map Showing the Route of Marco Polo's Journey 244 

The Race for India . . 253 

The Discoveries of the Northmen 262 

Spanish Voyages of Discovery to North America 265 

Routes of French and English Voyagers to America 268 



THE PREFACE 

THLS little book is an attempt to provide for the sixth 
grade a suitable text on the European background of 
American history. The subject matter is of course suggested 
very largely by the Report of the Committee of Eight of the 
American Historical Association on the Study of History in 
Elementary Schools. In. endeavoring to work out a plan 
based on the suggestions of this report, however, the authors 
have felt very keenly that while the "letter killeth, the spirit 
giveth life." Our object has been to provide a narrative which 
will make the past live and, while omitting nothing essential, 
hold the interest of children of from ten to twelve years. We 
must rest our case largely on our ability to "spin a good yarn." 
As the limitations of the present curriculum are such that 
no other opportunity is offered in the elementary school for 
the study of the development of Europe, we have tried, in this 
little volume, to trace the chain of circumstances leading to the 
colonization of America, and further, to give some notion 
of a few of the chief landmarks in the development of world- 
civilization. 

Because our book is for children the picture presented is 
necessarily in very broad outline. We have endeavored not 
to fail in the matter of accuracy. Yet we feel that many 
details of interest to mature students can have no place here. 
The consideration of such things as the tactics of the Persians 
at Marathon or the question as to how far Simon de Montfort 
was actually the founder of the House of Commons must be 
deferred for the student's later investigation. We hope that 
our young readers will some day wish to know all about these 
matters. 

(ix) 



X The Preface 

In adding a brief chapter on Egypt and the Oriental nations 
we have kept within the spirit of the report of the Committee 
of Eight. This supplementary material is not specifically 
required by that report, and it may be omitted without great 
detriment to the rest of the book. Its insertion, however, 
will give a glimpse at those earlier civilizations which form a 
background for much that follows. 

The authors' close association during many years has, we 
trust, enabled them to work for a common object and to avoid 
some of the evils of mixed workmanship. It should be stated 
that Mr. Mace is author of that part of the book treating of 
the rise of the modern nations, and the discoverers; and Mr. 
Tanner of the account of the ancient and the medieval world. 

Our thanks are due to our colleagues, Doctors H. L. Cleasby 
and A. W. Lauber, for reading the first part of the manuscript 
and giving valuable advice. We have also obtained most 
important suggestions from a study of earlier textbooks in 
our field. 

Whether or not we have succeeded in a task calling for a 
high degree of pedagogical skill, only the actual use of our little 

book can determine. 

W.H.M. 
E.P.T. 



EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE 
COMMITTEE OF EIGHT 

The following extracts from the "Report of the American 
Historical Association, by the Committee of Eight" clearly 
indicate the principal ideas of the Committee's report and form 
the basis of the sixth-grade work provided by this book. 

"The history-teaching in the elementary schools should be 
focused upon American History. But we do not mean to 
imply that American History signifies an account only of those 
events which have occurred in America. Our aim is to explain 



Extracts from the Report of the Committee of Eight xi 

the America of to-day; its civilization, its institutions, and its 
traditions. America cannot be understood without taking 
into account the history of its peoples before they crossed the 
Atlantic. 

"In the list of topics submitted for the sixth grade, those 
features of ancient and of medieval life have been illustrated 
which explain other important elements of our civilization 
or which show how the movement for discovery and coloni- 
zation originated. A few great incidents and typical char- 
acters of the ancient and the medieval world have been added 
because their stories are a part of the universal heritage of 
mankind. In medieval history special emphasis is laid upon 
England. It is not at all the intention to teach Greek, Roman, 
or medieval history, though some of the topics are selected 
from these fields. 

"In outlining the work suitable for this grade, we were 
governed by the following considerations: first, the desire 
to emphasize geographical facts, not only those which form a 
part of the history of the discoveries of the fifteenth and the 
sixteenth century, but also the simpler incidents of previous 
geographical discovery; second, the effort to put the facts 
connected with the emigration to America in their relation 
to earlier movements of peoples; third, the aim to show, in 
a very simple way, the civilizations which were the heritage of 
those who came to America, — that is, to explain what America 
started with; fourth, to associate the three or four peoples of 
Europe that were to have a share in American colonization, 
with enough of the characteristic incidents of their history to 
give the child some feeling for the names 'England,' 'Spain,' 
'Holland,' and 'France.' 

"If the unity of the general theme, particularly in the sixth 
grade, can be realized by some other treatment in individual 
instances, by omission or by more detailed work, this will 
not interfere with the aim of the plan." 



THE STORY OF 

OLD EUROPE 
AND YOUNG AMERICA 

INTRODUCTION 

I. Why Americans Should Know about Europe. 

Across the Atlantic Ocean, with its three thousand miles 
of tossing green waves, lie the old homes of the people 
who now inhabit America. The emigrants who came 
yesterday in the mighty steamships which now rush 
across the ocean in a few days, and the early settlers 
who reached this continent three hundred years ago in 
their frail, old-fashioned sailing vessels, came alike from 
Europe, where their forefathers had lived for many 
hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years. 

In the gray wilderness which once covered America 
the early colonists and their children have built up a new 
and great nation of whose splendid history and noble 
men and women all Americans are justly proud. Beneath 
its starry flag the newcomers to this country, if they are 
earnest and intelHgent, find a welcome to many things 
which crowded Europe cannot give. 

Yet we cannot rightly understand or appreciate how 
the people who came to these shores felt, what they tried 
to do, and how they worked to bring it about, unless we 
know at least a Httle of the story of the old home they 

(1) 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




left behind. Even three hundred years ago the men and 
women who reached America knew and beheved many 

things which can be ex- 
plained only by their 
life in Europe. The new 
arrivals of the present 
day, soon to be our fel- 
low citizens, also bring 
many strange ideas and 
customs which are the 
result of their life across 
the water. 

Americans may well 
look with love and re- 
spect to their old home, 
for Europe is filled with 
interesting and beautiful 
things, some natural, some the work of men of olden 
time, — objects made famous by song and story, ^which 
help to explain the history of our own forefathers. 

2. How Europe Looks To-Day. Here are the brave 
little British Isles with their great smoky manufacturing 
cities set amid green country, a land proud of its free 
government, which the sturdy men who dwell there have 
upheld for centuries against every attack. To their 
seaports come great fleets from all parts of the vast 
British Empire across the seas, for men of British race 
have conquered or colonized many wide regions in Asia, 
Africa, America, and Australia. The American may be 
proud that the first colonists of his country came from 
this sturdy little land, and that we speak the English 
tongue. 



From a photograph 

LOADING A STEAMSHIP BOUND FOR BRITISH 
COLONIES 



Introduction 



Across the British Channel hes "fair France," the 
home of everything beautiful. Here rise the roofs and 
spires of Paris, most famous of modern cities, for centuries 
the very center of refinement and culture. On every side 
stretch smiling fields, small to the eyes of an American, 
but fertile and well tilled, showing the industry and care 
of an intelligent people. Yet now and again the observant 
traveler may still see remains of walls and towers, grim 
even in decay, which tell of a time when war reigned and 
when fierce lords tyrannized over unfortunate peasants. 

Eastward over the Rhine stretches the mighty Ger- 
man Empire, the dear "Fatherland" of thousands who 
are now Americans. No wonder her people love her, for 
Germany is the land of great scholars, of splendid music, 
of harmless gayety, and beautiful indeed she is with her 
quaint old tow^ns and her bold, wooded hills. From the 

k 







«i 



111 



bustle of her cities 
and the smoke of 
her factories it is 
easy to see that 
Germany has a'; 
great future. But 
the ruined castles 
which crown her 
hills, the crumb- 
ling walls which 
still surround 
some of her older 
towns, even the 
thousands of well- 
drilled soldiers whom one sees on every hand, show that 
she has had hard struggles in the past. 




-^|>i^'^ 



From a photograph 
RUINS OF CHATEAU DE EOUAGUIL, A CASTLE IN FRANXE 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



To the south, over the snow-capped Alps, is "sunny 
Italy" with her blue sky, her green vineyards, and her 











From a photograph 



GERMAN SOLDIERS ON PARADE IN BERLIN 



light-hearted people. Here most of all one sees great 
monuments of the past, for Rome, the "Eternal City," 
was once mistress of the world. The remains of her vast 
temples, palaces, and theaters, beautiful even in their 
ruin, speak of that distant time when Rome gave laws 
to all nations. Smooth white roads and great stone 
aqueducts, in some cases still in use, bear witness also to 
the skill of Roman engineers and workmen in the years 
when even Germany was yet a forest. Nor must- we 
forget the beautiful cathedrals and churches, of much 
more recent date but still old, which men have never 
ceased to admire. 

Still farther to the east lies Greece, a small land to 
be sure, but beautified by the monuments of a yet earlier 







=S^:Oa:3 



EUROPE 



Copyright, ")'j, by Rand McXally c~ Cciitpaiiy 



Introduction 5 

day when the wisest men of the world walked the streets 
of Athens. 

South of Italy and Greece is the blue Mediterranean 
Sea. This once occupied the very center of the civilized 
world, for in ancient times western Asia and northern 
Africa were also the homes of important peoples. 

To-day unhappy Europe is ablaze with war. Places 
made sacred by the great struggles and the triumphs of 
the past are once more shaken by the tramp of thou- 
sands of marching men and lighted by the red flashes of 
artillery. On all sides are destruction, misery, and death. 
To those who are suffering in this awful conflict the 
sympathy of Americans goes out. However, since all 
the people of Europe are our friends, the United States 




THE APPIAN WAY TO-DAY 

This is the most famous of ancient Roman roads. In the background are the arches 
of a great stone acqueduct built 400 years later than the roadway 



can have no part in the struggle except to send food to 
the starving and relief to the wounded of both sides. 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



We can only hope that while this little book is being 
printed the terrible war will come to an end, and the 
brave soldiers return to their homes to enjoy a long peace. 
May it bring an equal blessing to all of our sister nations 
beyond the sea! 

History cannot yet tell the story of this war, for no 
one knows what its results will be. At some future time 
writers will show what of good or ill it has brought to the 




THE MEDITERRANEAN IN ANCIENT TIMES 



people of Europe and of America. In this volume we 
must be content to study the story of European nations 
in the days gone by, that we may learn what America 
has already received from them. 

3. America Unknown to the People of Ancient Times; 
Early Ideas of Geography. To thousands of the poor 
people of Europe, America now seems a wonderful land 
of promise. But the men of ancient times did not even 



Introduction 7 

guess that beyond the Atlantic lay a great continent 
which should some day be known as America. When 
Greece and Rome were great, people had little knowledge 
of any lands except those near the Mediterranean Sea. 
Even some of these countries then bore names and were 
inhabited by peoples strange to us. The old Romans 
spoke, indeed, of Greece, Italy, and Germany, but France 
they called Gaul, and its people, Gauls; while distant 
England was Britannia, and its barbarous inhabitants, 
Britons. 

About more remote lands the ancients had only vague 
ideas. The early Greeks did not comprehend that the 
earth is a sphere, but thought it to be shaped somewhat 
like a plate. Europe and Africa were in the middle, and 
around the outside flowed the ocean, which they believed 
to be like a great river. 

Some of the best thinkers of Greece, however, later 
guessed that the earth is a globe. But of what lay beyond 
the shores of the Mediterranean even the Romans were 
still largely in ignorance. The most remote northern 
island in the Atlantic of which they had heard they called 
"Ultima Thule." Since they said Thule was north of 
the British Isles, this name probably meant the Shetland 
Islands. Beyond Thule the Greeks and Romans thought 
there was nothing but mist and fog. 

The people who lived on the lower side of the earth, 
that is, in the Southern Hemisphere, the old writers called 
the "Antipodes," or people who walked with their feet 
upward. But of these Antipodes they really knew noth- 
ing, and some said that they could never be found, since 
the equator was surrounded by a ring of fire which no 
human being could pass. 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



For many centuries after Roman days the world 
learned little or nothing more about geography. But 




Simplified from Pomponius Mela's World 
MAP OF THE ANCIENT WORLD, ABOUT SO A.D. 

just before the time of Christopher Columbus sailors 
finally began to make longer voyages on the stormy 
Atlantic. People had found out, too, something about 
China, Japan, and other distant parts of Asia. Maps 
made by the best geographers of that day show that, 
since they knew nothing of America lying between, they 
thought it would be quite easy to sail across from Europe 
to the rich countries of Asia. The ocean they believed 
to be not very wide, and numerous islands would make 
the voyage easy. 

Yet men did not make the attempt. Ignorant people 
still thought that the earth was flat. Others dreaded the 



Introduction g 

"burning tropics," the blazing zone which the Romans 
had said surrounded the equator, or spoke in terror of a 
"sea of darkness" of unknown extent. Men noticed also 
that when a ship was in the distance, its hull disappeared 
first from sight. So some thought that vessels on the 
ocean were sailing downhill, and were afraid that if they 
went too far they could never get back. 

When Columbus by his wonderful voyage at length 
showed that the ocean could be safely crossed and that 
curious lands lay on the other side, men did not even yet 
understand that he had found a new continent. It was 
some part of Asia, they thought, which the brave sailor 
had discovered. With such maps as they had this was a 
very natural mistake. 

4. Why the First European Colonists Came to Amer- 
ica. The first Europeans who came to America sought 
gold, silver, spices, and other treasure which would make 
them suddenly rich. In South America and Mexico the 
precious metals were soon discovered and seized. But 
to the early sailors the part of North America which is 
now the United States did not seem very attractive. 
It was only a wilderness inhabited by red Indians. Why 
should people from Europe risk their lives in such a 
wild region ? 

It was a long while before many did so. But Amer- 
icans may well be proud of the reasons which finally 
brought English settlers to these shores. Why many of 
them came, a famous incident will show. 

In the year 1620 a stanch little ship, the Mayflower, 
sailed from England and, buffeting the great waves of the 
Atlantic, made her way to the coast of Massachusetts. 
In her cabin was a little band of about one hundred brave 



lO 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




From a model at Plymouth 
'MAYFLOWER" 



men and women. Unterrified by the wild and stern 
character of the shore and the pounding surf, they reso- 
lutely landed and built 
rude cabins. 

Soon came the ter- 
rible northern winter, 
bringing cruel suffering. 
About half the party 
died from the hardship. 
But when spring came 
the brave band would 
not return to the com- 
forts of Europe. The 
little settlement which 
they planted at Ply- 
mouth, Massachusetts, remained to be one of the 
beginnings of our prosperous New England States. 

Not for worldly gain did the Pilgrims, as the settlers 
of Plymouth are called, endure all these things. In those 
days .people in Europe were not free, as they are now, to 
worship God in any way they thought right. England, 
like most other countries, had cruel laws which compelled 
all to go to one church or suffer heavy penalties. Rather 
than worship in a way they thought wrong, these sturdy 
men and women preferred to live in a bleak forest sur- 
rounded by savage men and beasts, and to endure any 
suffering which might be necessary. They loved America 
because it made them free. 

Not all of the people who, three centuries ago, came to 
plant new homes upon our shores acted from such noble 
reasons. Yet very many of them faced the perils of the 
new land that they might worship more freely or escape 



Introduction 



II 




A MODERN STEAMSHIP 



the tyrannical rule of the kings and princes of Europe. 

We can never be too grateful to the memory of those 
fearless pioneers 
who by their sturdy 
labor cut down the 
great forests, laid 
out roads, bridged 
the rivers, and over- 
came the savage 
Indians, so that to- 
day America rivals 
in civilization and 
fertility the lands 
of the Old Worid. 

5. How America Receives European Immigrants 
To-day. When a great modern steamship with its huge 
funnels and high black hull glides into a busy American 
seaport like New York or Philadelphia, her decks are 
often crowded with hundreds of people from Europe who 
have come to seek their fortunes in our country. Per- 
haps there are still some among them from Russia or 
Turkey who, like the Pilgrims of old, have been harshly 
used because of their religion. But most of these immi- 
grants now come that they may find more profitable work 
and a chance to live in greater comfort than is possible 
in the densely peopled lands they have left. 

How different is the sight which meets their eyes from 
that which the brave colonists of three centuries ago had 
to face! Instead of a rough wilderness they see the tall 
buildings and handsome streets of a modern city, and 
feel the bustling life of a new and prosperous nation. In 
this life they, too, hope soon to share. But all has been 



12 The Story of Old Europe and Voting America 

won for them by the strong men and courageous women 
of past days. 

If they are of the stuff of which good Americans are 
made, the newcomers are welcome. But our country has 
no rewards for the idle or criminal. Before they are 
allowed to land, the immigrants are taken before officers 
of the government, who examine them carefully to see 
that their characters are good, that they have no dan- 
gerous disease, and that they are not likely to become 
paupers. Often weak or vicious people are sent back to 
Europe. Harsh does our law sometimes seem to such 
unfortunates, but America is not for them. 

For the rest the door is open. From the great seaport 
screaming railway trains soon bear them to the cities or 
towns where they can find work or where they have chosen 
to begin the new life. But if they are poor they must be 
brave and strong, for though there are no more Indians 
to fight or fierce animals to slay, their lot may be almost 
as hard as that of the Pilgrims themselves. Perhaps the 
immigrants have no friends and cannot speak our lan- 
guage. They must work hard at rough labor. But if 
they are industrious the}^ will soon rise. In a few years 
thousands find themselves far happier than they could 
ever have been in Europe, and their children may start 
life on equal terms with the descendants of the first 
colonists. 

In this book, however, it is not our task to tell further 
of the life which the United States now gives. Rather do 
we seek to know something of the thoughts and ideas 
which had their beginnings long ago in Europe, and 
which the newcomers bring with them across the sea 
to America. 



What the Eastern Nations Gave 



^3 



WHAT THE EASTERN NATIONS GAVE 

6. How the Earliest Men in Europe Lived. How 

long men have lived in Europe no one can say, for they 

dwelt there thousands 

of years before anybody 

knew how to write or to 

leave records. Of the 

v/ars, the journeys, the 

adventures of these ear- 
liest men we therefore 

know nothing. But of 

their character and way 

of life we can learn at 

least a little, for their 

weapons, their tools, their 

graves, even their pic- 
tures rudely scratched on 

bits of bone, have been 

found in many places. 

Rough savages they were at first, shivering in caves 

and woods, fighting 
'^\^ ^.-,- >=e.^:^_ tooth and nail with 

fierce animals like 
the mammoth and 
the cave bear, now 
starving wretchedly 
for days, now cram- 
ming their stomachs 
in savage feasting 

upon some slain beast. But ignorant and fierce as these 

shaggy cave-men were, they did not stand still. The 




RECORDS OF THE STONE AGE 

Scratched on bone by a cave-man 




WEAPONS AND TOOLS OF A CAVE-MAN 



14 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




earliest tools discovered are of rough stone, clumsy, and 

almost without form. Later they found out how to shape 
and polish broken pieces of stone into 
arrowheads, axes, and hammers, — 
poor and weak indeed, but better 
than nothing. Finally metals were 
discovered: first bronze, long after- 
wards iron. With tools and weapons 
made of these metals, men became 
indeed masters over beasts and forests. 
As the centuries rolled past, great 
inventions came, — how, we shall never 
know; perhaps it was often by acci- 
dent. Men found how to make and 
use fire. They invented the bow and 
arrow. They learned to till the fields 
in rude ways. They tamed some of 

the animals. They learned to weave cloth. To early 

men, savage and ignorant, these things must have meant 

as much as did the discovery 

of the steam engine and the 

telegraph to people of our 

own time. When real history 

begins the people of Europe 

were no longer savages, 

though still barbarous and 

rough. 

7. Civilization Begins in 

Egypt. But long before 

Europeans had become really 

civilized both Africa and Asia saw nations appear which 

led the way to knowledge. Almost opposite Greece, 



A CAVE-MAN WITH 
WEAPONS 




From Dopp 9 Early Cave-men 
A CAVE-MAN MAKING FIRE 



What the Eastern Nations Gave 15 

to the south, in Africa, Hes the wonderful land of Egypt. 
Here the traveler sees the remains of huge temples 
covered with mysterious picture writing, of strange 
statues and monuments, and above all, those gigantic 
pyramids which still fill the mind with awe. The men 
who built some of these things lived at least five thousand 
years ago, and probably long before that. 

In early times men, if they are to learn, must have a 
fertile country, so that all their time need not be spent 







THE PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH AND THE SPHINX 

in seeking food. They must also be protected from their 
foes by mountains or deserts. Egypt both protected 
and nourished its people. On almost every side stretch 
wastes of sand, impassable for the armies of that early 
day. But though rain hardly ever falls in most of this 
strange land, Egypt itself is no desert. Through its 
heart runs the great river Nile. Every year this mighty 
stream rises in flood, overflows the fields which He along 
its banks, and then goes down again, leaving the land 
covered with rich mud, just the thing to produce great 
crops of grain. The ancient Egyptians, moreover, knew 



1 6 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



A PORTION OF THE ROSETTA STONE 

This reproduction shows the three different 

texts in which the story on the Roseita 

Stone is told. The Greek text, the 

kev to all Egyptian writings, is 

at the bottom. The Stone 

is nmv in the British 

Museum, London 




how, with cun- 
ning skill, to 
catch the water 
of the Nile in 
reservoirs, and 
to direct it by 
means of ditches 
to points where 
it would do the 
most good. 

Of the early 
history of Egypt 
modern people 
long knew very 
little that they 
could be sure 
was true. The 
great Egyptian 
monuments were 
indeed covered 
with strange 
black and red 
picture writing, 
which seemed to 
tell a great story, 
but no one could 
read it. 

But at last 
a queer black 
stone was dug 
up near one of 
the mouths of 



What the Eastern Nations Gave 



17 



the Nile. This "Rosetta Stone" was covered with 
Egyptian writing, but below this was'other writing in the 

Greek language [which 
many scholars could 
read. While people be- 
lieved the Egyptian writ- 
ing and the Greek writing 




EGYPTIAN HIEROGL\PHICS 

This inscription is a dedication to the god Set, 
railed by the Greeks Typhon 



said the same thing, still, 
though^many tried, none 
could discover how to read the Egyptian pictures. Finally 
however, a great French scholar solved the puzzle, and 
thanks to him we can now know exactly what the old 
Egyptians wished to tell us of their kings and queens, 
of their wars and victories, of the strange gods whom 
they worshiped. 

For over four thousand years ancient Egypt flourished 
under its kings. The most famous of them all was the 
great warrior Rameses II. During most of this long 
time the Egyp- 
tian people in 
general seem to 
have been happy, 
yet they were not 
free, as we are, 
to do as they 
wished. The will 
of the king was 
supreme. More- 
over, the people 
were divided into 
classes, each of which had its special privileges and 
duties, — nobles, priests, government ofificers, soldiers, 




From The Dawn of Civilization by Maspero 
EGYPTIAN STONECUTTERS FINISHING THE DRESSING OF 
LIMESTONE BLOCKS 



[8 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




From a photograph 
AN EGYPTIAN MUMMY (RAMESES II) 



merchants, workmen, and peasants. Of the lower 
classes the lot was often very hard indeed, for they must 

pay heavy taxes and sometimes 
work hard for the king without 
pay. 

The Egyptians were a very 
religious people. Their priests, 
who were the best educated 
men, had great influence. The 
common people were most super- 
stitious, and paid a foolish rev- 
erence to such absurd things as 
palm trees, cats, and crocodiles; 
the more intelligent had higher 
notions, though all believed in a 
great number of gods and goddesses of whose power 
and works strange tales were told. Yet the Egyptians 
believed in a life after death, when.* the good were re- 
warded and the bad punished. They thought that the 
souls of the dead would one day come back to dwell 
again in their bodies. Therefore they took great pains 
to embalm the bodies of those who died so that their 
souls might not be without a dwelling place. With such 
wonderful skill did they do their work that in our own 
times the "mummies" of many of their great men and 
women have been found, wrapped in their "mummy 
cloth" and perfectly preserved. We can even look on 
the face of the fierce Rameses II, who died over three 
thousand years ago. 

Many other important things the men of ancient 
Egypt knew. They studied the starry skies, and learned 
much about the movements of the sun, moon, and stars. 



What the Eastern Nations Gave 



In arithmetic they could count up to millions. When 
the Nile overflowed their lands, they knew how, by 
means of geometry, to find again the boundaries of 
their fields. In trades and handicrafts they were skillful. 
Thus they could weave and cut jewels and make glass 
cleverly and beautifully. 

But above all they excelled as builders. They built 
temples adorned with gigantic columns; they carved 
those huge and curious stone images called sphinxes 
which have the 
bodies of lions 
and the heads of 
women; they set 
up tall, pointed 
monuments called 
obelisks, covered 
with writing 
which tells us the 
deeds of kings and 
heroes. But most 
interesting of all 
are, of course, 
their mighty pyr- 
amids, built of 
gigantic blocks of 
stone, which were 
constructed as 
tombs for their 
kings. (3733 B.C.) 
How remarkable 
that they could raise these huge masses and set them in 
place with such marvelous exactness, all without the use of 




HALL OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF KARNAK 

Notice how the gigantic columns tower above the 
people below. {Begun about 2700 B.C.) 



20 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

modern machinery! It must have taken the labor of 
thousands of men for many weary years. 

The world owes a great deal to the Egyptians, for the 
beginnings of much which we know go back to them. 

8. Asia, Too, Has Early Civilized Peoples. To the 
east of Egypt in southwestern Asia lies another fertile 
land, watered by two great rivers called the Tigris and 
the Euphrates. We now know that civilized people 
lived here almost as early as in Egypt itself. 

In this country the modern traveler sees no such 
wonderful ruins as along the Nile, but in some places 
huge, unsightly mounds have been discovered which were 
evidently the work of men. Into many of these, patient 
explorers have dug, and rich has been their reward. 
These mounds are the remains of ancient cities, and the 
explorer's spade has shown to us how their palaces and 
their walls and their streets were once built. By the 
Euphrates stood Babylon, with its towering walls and its 
terraced gardens, once the noblest city of all the world. 
To the north, on the Tigris, was Nineveh, whose fierce 
kings held sway over many nations. Other mound's in 
this region besides these tell us, too, of glories now dead 
for thousands of years. 

Like the Egyptians, the Babylonians also were great 
builders. But as there was little stone in their land they 
had to make their great structures of sun-dried brick. 
This soft material, as centuries passed, crumbled away 
into the vast mounds which so well concealed their 
secrets. 

Bricks were not merely the building material of the 
Babylonians; they also served them for books. Upon the 
clay, when it was still soft, these ancient men made, with 



What the Eastern Nations Gave 




'^ /""'fj'^//') / ''"_ 



jzi^-nr- ^jj^ezT' 



-^1 



-ci:A^^' i^ 




EXCAVATING A MOUND IN BABYLONIA 

A modern explorer with native workmen is excavating the entrance building to the 
Acropolis of Babylon 

a sharp piece of metal, wedge-shaped marks which took 
the place of letters. Whole libraries of these Assyrian 
brick or clay books have been dug from the earth, and 
we can now read again the laws, the poems, the prayers, 
3 



TJie Story of Old Europe and Young America 



the very schoolbooks of this long-departed race. It fills 
us with astonishment to find how many things they knew 

and how much their daily lives 

were like our own. 

9. How the Hebrews and 

Phoenicians Helped Civilization. 

Lying between Egypt and Baby- 
JX ^ ^ ll "^ Ti^ Ionia, near the eastern end of 
V -^u« -L JUL the Mediterranean, lies Palestine, 

where three thousand years ago 

lived one of the most remarkable 

^ nations the world has ever seen. 

H[ it! v^ The ancient Hebrews were not as 






6 
% 

T 



V 









II 



From an Assyrian tablet numerous Or strong m War as 

WRITING ON A SUN-BAKED BRICK ^^^^ q£ |.J^g-j. nclghbOrS, thOUgh 

they, too, had powerful kings Hke the brave David 
and the wise Solomon. They did not equal the Egyp- 
tians in learning. But, first of all peoples in the world, 
the Hebrews worshiped the one God, maker of heaven 
and earth, and urged men to obey His commandments. 

Though their 
capital, Jerusalem, 
was later seized by 
their enemies and 
they themselves 
scattered to the 
ends of the earth, 
the Jews still clung 
to the "one true 
God." In religion 
they have been the schoolmasters of all European peoples. 

Near the Hebrews, in a narrow little land on the 




From an As-*\ nan 1 ulpture 
PHOENICIAN GALLE\ UNDER O^R AND SAIL 



What the Eastern Nations Gave 



23 



edge of the Mediterranean Sea itself, lived 
the Phoenicians. They were the great 
ancient world, and Phoenician ships with 
their strong oars and .white sails made 
voyages which then seemed long and 
dangerous. They dared sail even to Spain, 
and finally made their way to the distant 
British Isles. 

Through trading with them the peoples 
who lived along the Mediterranean gained 
some ideas which the Phoenicians them- 
selves had gathered from the people of 
Egypt or Babylon. 

Most valuable of all was a knowledge of 
the letters of the alphabet, for the Phoeni- 
cians knew how to write by marks which 
stood for sounds. This is called phonetic, 
or sound, writing. It was simpler and 
better than the picture writing of the 
Egyptians or the wedge-shaped writing of 
the Babylonians. Though these, too, were 
partly phonetic, they were clumsy, and 
difficult to learn. 



their kinsmen, 
traders of the 



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5 


a 







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c 


c 


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B 


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t>D 


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EH 


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TYPES OF EARLY 
ALPHABETS 



SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. The earliest men who lived in 
Europe were rough savages. 2. These people gradually 
improved their condition and made many simple but useful 
inventions, j. The first really civilized people were the 
Egyptians. 4. We are now able to read their writings and 
know many facts of their history. 5. The Egyptians had 
much useful knowledge and excelled in building huge temples, 
sphinxes, and pyramids. 6. In the valley of the Tigris and 
Euphrates rivers in Asia civilized people also lived at a very 



2 4 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

early time. 7. They built temples and cities of brick which 
have crumbled into great mounds. 8. The Hebrews were 
the first people to worship one God. p. Their kinsmen, the 
Phoenicians, were great traders, and taught the people of 
Europe the alphabet. 

Study Questions, i. Why does no one know how long 
men have lived in Europe? 2. How can we tell something of 
the way early men in Europe lived? j. What were some of 
the useful inventions and discoveries made by these people? 

4. What things helped the people of Egypt to become civilized? 

5. What discovery helped scholars to read the Egyptian 
writing? 6. What are "mummies," and why did the Egyp- 
tians pay so much attention to preserving them? 7. Make 
a list of useful things which the Egyptians knew. 8. How do 
we get our knowledge about the ancient people of the valley 
of the Tigris and Euphrates? g. Why did they use brick for 
building instead of stone? 10. Why does the world care about 
the ancient Hebrews? 11. Why did the voyages of the Phoe- 
nicians seem long and dangerous? 12. Why is "sound writing" 
better than "picture writing"? 

Suggested Readings. Mclntyre, The Cave Boy of the Stone 
Age; Holbrook, Cave, Mound, and Lake Dwellers, and Other 
Primitive Peoples; Arnold, Stories of Ancient Peoples; Ragozin, 
.4 History of the World: Vol. I, Earliest Peoples; Retold from 
"St. Nicholas" : Stories of the Ancient World, 3-52, 69-77, 92-124. 

WHAT THE GREEKS GAVE IN STORIES 
AND MYTHS 

10. What We Owe to the Greeks. The first civiHzed 
people in Europe were the Greeks, or Hellenes as they 
called themselves. Undoubtedly they themselves learned 
much from Egypt and from Asia, but as the Greeks learned 
they also invented and improved, so that all that they did 
seems new and wonderful. In some ways they did so 
well that no nation has ever equaled them, and even the 
wisest men of to-day are proud to follow their example. 

Of many things which we now have the men of ancient 



What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 



25 



Greece of course knew nothing. No screaming railway 
trains rushed across their land; no factories with their 
great machines were found in their cities; they did not 
dream of the telegraph of of electric light. As compared 
with ours, their lives were very simple. 

But the Hellenes loved most, all that is beautiful. 
Their temples were small and simple, but so graceful and 
so perfect that we still imitate them in our public build- 
ings. They carved statues of such beauty that artists 







TEMPLE OF POSEIDON (NEPTUNE) AT PAESTUM 

This building, erected in honor of Poseidon, god of the sea, shows the beauty 
and harmony of ancient Greek temples 

still travel thousands of miles to see even broken pieces 
of them. They made stories and poems of such wonder- 
ful power that our best writers study them to learn how 
to improve their own work. 

Yet the Greeks were not artists alone. Their wise 
men, or philosophers as they were called, thought deeply 
about many practical things, too. Sometimes, indeed, 
they made strange mistakes, yet they left to later peoples 
the beginnings of nearly all the subjects now taught in 



26 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



schools and colleges. They had noble thoughts, also, 
about how men should live. First of all civilized peoples, 
they learned to govern themselves without kings and 
princes. To them it seemed the duty of every man to 
benefit his country and even to lay down his life, if 
necessary, to save her from slavery. 

II. Where the Greeks Lived. Greece itself is a penin- 
sula indented by deep gulfs and bays which make it look 
on the map something like a man's 
hand. It is only a small country, not 
so large as our state of New York or 
Virginia, and is all cut up by rug- 
ged mountains into narrow valleys 
and high plateaus. Even to-day the 
traveler journeys across the country 
with difficulty. 

Yet Greece is a beautiful land. 
Against a deep blue sky, its bold 
hills and mountains, often powdered 
with snow, stand out in clear outline, 
and its fertile valleys please the eye 
with their green vineyards and groves 
of silver-gray olive trees. Above all, 
one can never get far from the sea, 
that same wonderful blue sea which 
seemed to call the ancient Greeks to 
voyages of adventure and trade. 

Statue in the Louvre, Paris 

VENUS Di MiLo Grcccc has the warm, balmy 

'''b:::Sj''f^uii^T climate of all Mediterranean lands. 

ancient Greek statuary yet it knOWS thc frOStS of wintCr, 

which, however, is much shorter than with us. 

But in ancient times "Greece" was really very much 





GREATER GREECE AND THE THOENICIAN COLONIES.v\ „ « 




3EK COLONIES.!,,,, ; PHOENICIAN COLONIES 



Copyright, igis, I'.v Kand McXally 6r Company 



What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 27 

wider than the peninsula of the name. Scattered thickly 
in the sea on both sides of the mainland are many islands, 
both large and small, while to the south lies the large, 
mountainous island of Crete. In all of these lived 
Hellenes who' took an active part in whatever went on, 
for to the Greek the sea, instead of being a barrier, was 
a natural road of communication. 

But this was not all. As Greece was but a small 
land, the flourishing Greek cities very early began to 
send out colonies to neighboring coasts. Gathering 
about some strong leader, bands of citizens would sail 
forth in their long vessels perhaps to some neighboring 
island, perhaps to some distant and Httle known shore. 
Here, where some curving harbor gave advantage for 
commerce, they would build a new city. In course of 
time many of these colonies grew into powerful states, 
often stronger and finer than the mother-city itself. 

Thus the Greeks in very ancient days made many 
settlements along the coast of Asia Minor. Becoming 
still more daring, they voyaged through the straits into 
the Black Sea, on the shores of which they built many 
towns. Because this body of water took their ships to 
such pleasant coasts, the Greeks called it the Euxine Sea, 
a name which means "the sea friendly to strangers." 
They settled also along the northern coast of Africa, and 
especially in southern Italy and on the island of Sicily. 
Here was built Syracuse, the greatest of all Greek cities 
outside of Greece itself. The large peninsula of Italy 
was so filled with Greek towns that men often called it 
"Greater Greece." Still farther west, in what is now 
southern France and Spain, this race of seafarers had a 
foothold also. 



28 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



When an ancient Greek spoke of Greece he meant not 
merely the small mountainous land which was the mother 
country of his people, but rather all places everywhere 
where Greeks lived. The true Greece of ancient times 
was scattered all about the Mediterranean Sea. 

Many cities founded by these ancient people still 
exist and are even yet among the world's great centers 




MOUNT OLYMPUS, ON THE NORTHERN BORDERS OF GREECE 

According to Greek mythology, it was the home of the gods, and here Homer wrote 
his earliest hymns 

of commerce. Not only Athens in Greece itself, but 
Alexandria in Egypt, Constantinople in Turkey, and 
Marseilles in southern France were once Greek towns, 
and all but Constantinople still bear names very much 
like those which the Greeks gave. Few peoples, indeed, 
have known how to choose the places for their cities 
with such great foresight. 



What the Greeks Gave in Stones and Myths 



29 



12. The Religion of the Greeks; Gods and Goddesses. 

Like most early peoples the Greeks once thought that 
the great powers of nature, — 
the sky, the sun, the sea, — 
were gods whose favor men 
must win if they were to suc- 
ceed in what they undertook. 
But as time went on they 
gave names to these forces 
and spoke of them as persons 
-.- gods and goddesses who felt 
and acted, loved and hated, 
much as do human beings. 
Upon Mount Olympus, a huge, 
snowy mountain in northern 
Greece, these mighty beings 
held their court. 

The Greeks thought that 
the gods often interfered in 
human affairs, aiding those who pleased them but heaping 
ruin upon their enemies. Sometimes the gods and god- 
desses even appeared in human shape and mingled with 
men. They might be wounded, but never died, and ill in- 
deed fared those who injured them, even unintentionally. 

The chief of all the gods was Zeus, or Jupiter, whose 
strong hand held the thunderbolts which none might 
resist. With him ruled his wife, the proud queen Juno, 
a jealous enemy to those who opposed her. But Zeus 
shared his power with his two brothers, — Neptune, 
the rough old god of the sea, and dark Pluto, king of 
"Hades," or the underworld, whither must go the souls 
of all the dead. 




Bust in Valicau Aluseuin, Home 
HEAD OF ZEUS 

Chief god in Vreek mythology, ruler 
over gods and men 



30 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



The court of Olympus was graced by Venus, the 
beautiful goddess of love ; Diana, the moon, wild goddess 
of the chase; and the calm and brave Athena, daughter 
of Zeus and goddess of wisdom. High among the gods 
stood Vulcan, the strong but lame blacksmith, whose 
workshops were the volcanoes; the graceful Apollo, god 
of manly beauty, and the swift Mercury, with his winged 
sandals, who watched over merchants and thieves. Nor 
must we forget Mars, the fierce god of war, delighting 
in the clang of weapons and the blood of the slain. 

Besides these greater gods and god- 
desses the ancient Greeks believed also 
in a host of lesser beings, such as un- 
ruly giants, beautiful nymphs delight- 
ing in the dance, and clumsy satyrs 
who had human bodies but the hoofs 
and horns of goats. Every hill, every 
stream, every waterfall, held within it 
a spirit which thought and felt. 

Regarding these divinities and their 
doings many stories or ' ' myths ' ' were 
told among the Greeks. Many of 
these tales are indeed so fanciful that 
only a very simple people could believe 
them. Yet the stories and the poems 
in which they were put are so beauti- 
ful and interesting that the world can 
never forget them. 

Absurd as a belief in such gods 
may seem to us, their religion was 
very real to the early Greeks, who began almost every 
act of life with a religious ceremony. To their gods and 




After the statue by Phidias 
ATHENA PARTHENOS 

Goddess of wisdom and war 



What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 



31 



goddesses they not only erected splendid temples and 
noble statues, but in their honor they held great festivals 




FRAGMENT OF PARTHENON FRIEZE BY PHIDIAS 

Picturing Athenian youths riding in the Pan-Alhenaic festival 

and made frequent sacrifices. Every city and town had 
its special protecting god or goddess, upon whose power 
it relied for safety. Each household had its gods, to 
whom, as well as to the souls of their ancestors, parents 
and children paid religious veneration. 

13. The Deeds of the Heroes. The Greeks had 
myths not merely about the gods but also concerning 
heroes of olden times. These heroes, they thought, were 
men like themselves, who had lived and died, but men 
who possessed wonderful strength and courage and who 
had done marvelous deeds. In these feats the gods, who 
loved heroes, had often aided them. 

One of their chief heroes was Hercules, the strongest 
of all men. Unfortunately for him the goddess Juno 
was his bitter enemy and by her power he was forced 
to perform twelve gigantic labors, each one of which 
would have crushed an ordinary man. The labors of 
Hercules included slaying a huge lion with his hands 
and destroying a terrible nine-headed water serpent 
called the Hydra. This monster was difficult to over- 
come, for every time the hero struck off one of its heads 
with his club two more heads grew in its place. 



32 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




From a wall paintiut^ 
HERCULES STRANGLING THE NEMEAN LION 

The first of the "twelve labors" demanded of Hercules 
by Juno 



Another hero was Theseus. In his day, it was said, 
the people of Athens were obHged to send every year 

seven youths and 
seven maidens to 
be devoured by a 
terrible monster 
living in a place 
called a "laby- 
rinth." This laby- 
rinth was so craftily 
built that no one 
who entered could 
ever find his way 
out unaided. But 
Theseus was beloved by the daughter of the king of that 
country, and she gave him 
a sword and a ball of thread 
which he could unwind as 
he went along. Thus he 
slew the monster, escaped 
from the labyrinth, and 
returned home to become 
King of Athens. 

Sometimes, it was be- 
lieved, a whole band of 
heroes undertook an adven- 
ture together. Such an 
expedition was that of Jason 
and his companions, who 

sailed in the stout ship Argo r^r^-^ ^^^ - s^'i^r-v^w^j 
to bring home the golden "^ ' " ' ^=^^-^— 

o O ^— '■ JASON TAKING THE GOLDEN FLEECE 

fleece." This wonderful Whlle the drago7i is put to sleep by enchantment 




What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 



2>i 



trophy was nailed upon a tree in a far-distant land, and 
there guarded by a sleepless dragon. Frightful indeed 




CONTEST OF ACHILLES AND HECTOR 

Serving the warriors are Alhena (al the left) and Apollo (at the right) 

were the perils the brave Argonauts underwent before 
they at length returned in triumph. 

14. The Siege of Troy. But the favorite story of 
the Hellenes was that told in a wonderful poem, composed, 
they said, by a blind poet named Homer. If such a 
man ever lived, surely he was one of the world's 
greatest poets, for men have never ceased admiring these 
beautiful verses. 

He sang how Paris, the son of Priam, King of Troy, a 
great city in Asia Minor, stole away the fair Helen, wife 
of Menelaus, king of the Greek city of Sparta. Then 
Menelaus called upon all the Greeks to help him win 
Helen back. Nobly they responded, every city in Greece 
sending its heroes in their long black ships to share in 
the war. Foremost among them were the strong Ajax, 
the clever Ulysses, and the swift Achilles, best warrior 
of Greece. The commander was Agamemnon, brother of 
the wronged Menelaus. 

But the Trojans were great fighters. Paris, who had 
caused all the trouble, proved cowardly, but his brother 
Hector led them with great courage. For nine years 
the war went on beneath the walls of Troy. But though 



34 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



/ '1 






r*^ 


Ctt JUUUUUUUUl\ 


11 . 


^ 



From an ancient gem 
THE WOODEN HORSE OF THE GREEKS 



the heroes on both sides performed wonderful deeds, 
neither side prevailed. The gods themselves took part 

in the struggle by aiding 
their favorites, some help- 
ing the Greeks, others 
helping Hector and his 
Trojans. 

At length Agamem- 
non, leader of the Greeks, 
quarreled with Achilles 
and this brave warrior, 
retiring to his tent, would 
no longer fight. With- 
out him the Greeks were 
defeated, and pursued by the Trojans to their ships. 
Even these Hector and his stout warriors tried to burn. 
Seeing his old comrades in such danger, Achilles' best 
friend, Patroclus, begged that sulky hero to lend him his 
armor and his followers that he might save the Greeks 
from destruction. This request Achilles granted, and his 
friend drove back the Trojans, but was soon afterwards 
slain by Hector, . 

Driven by rage at the death of his dear friend, Achilles 
now rushed forth and, clad in new and wonderful armor 
made for him by the god Vulcan, carried all before him. 
At last he and Hector met in single combat beneath 
the walls of Troy, and the Trojan chief fell before his 
terrible spear. 

With the revenge of Achilles, Homer's great poem ends. 
Other stories, however, told how Achilles, too, was slain 
and how at length Troy was taken by a clever trick of 
Ulysses. The Greeks pretended to sail home, but left 



What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 



35 



behind a great wooden horse which the fooHsh Trojans 
dragged inside their city. It proved to be filled with 
Greek warriors, who at dead of night opened the gates 
and let in their countrymen, who had now returned. 
Troy was given over to fire and sword, and Menelaus and 
the Greeks sailed for home in triumph, bearing Helen 
with them to be once more Queen of Sparta^ 

The Greeks never tired of reciting this thrilling story, 
in which they believed the deeds of their forefathers 
were set forth. 

Almost equal pleasure did they find in another tale 
which Homer sang, — that of the wanderings of Ulysses. 
This famous chief had offended the god Neptune and 
therefore, when he sailed ^ ^ 

from Troy, his ship was "" — — -."»».»v^ .^- *«>*--.. 

beaten by storms and for 
twenty years he strove in 
vain to reach his home, 
the island of Ithaca. Aw- 
ful perils beset him; his 
ship and his comrades 
were lost, but Ulysses, 
cunning and brave, 
escaped all danger. In 
the end he reached Ithaca 
to find his faithful wife 
Penelope still waiting his 
return, and to take ven- 
geance upon those who 
had tried to win her 
hand and possess his kingdom. Among all their heroes 
the Greeks especially loved Ulysses because of his 




ULYSSES RETURNING TO HIS HOME 
AS A BEGGAR 

Entrance to court of ancient Greek house 



36 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

cleverhess, a quality which they greatly admired and 
strove to cultivate in themselves. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts. /. The first civilized people of Europe 
were the Greeks. 2. The Greeks have taught all the world 
to admire beautiful things, j. They gave us also the begin- 
nings of most of the subjects now taught in schools and colleges. 
4. Greece is a small, .mountainous country, every part of which 
is near the sea. 5. In ancient times the Greeks were brave 
sailors, and planted colonies on all the neighboring coasts. 
6. The Greeks worshiped many gods and goddesses, about 
whom they told beautiful but curious stories. 7. They had 
also many stories regarding heroes such as Hercules, Theseus, 
and Jason. 8. The most famous stories are about the siege 
of Troy and the wanderings of Ulysses, p. These are told in 
two wonderful poems said to have been composed by a blind 
poet named Homer. 

Study Questions. / . What are some of the things we know 
which the Greeks did not know? 2. State some things which 
the Greeks tinderstood better, or cared more for, than we do. 
J. Describe Greece. 4. Why do you think the ancient Greeks 
became sailors? 5. In what places did they plant colonies? 
6. Name the chief gods and goddesses of Olympus. 7. How 
did the Greeks show that their belief in these deities was 
real? 8. Tell an incident connected with Hercules; Theseus; 
Jason, g. Name some of the heroes of the Trojan War. 
10. Tell the story of the revenge of Achilles. 11. How was 
Troy finally taken? 12. Why did the Greeks especially ad- 
mire Ulysses? 

Suggested Readings. Guerber, The Story of the Greeks, 
11-62; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men; Lang, 
Tales of Troy and Greece, 9-61, 111-129, 159-188; Gale, Achilles 
and Hector, 13-143; Kingsley, The Heroes, or, Greek Fairy Tales 
for My Children, "The Argonauts," 87-253; Church, The Story 
of the Riad, 1-16, 109-155; The Story of the Odyssey, 13-204, 
261-307; DeGarmo, Tales of Troy for Boys and Girls; Retold 
from "St. Nicholas": Stories of Classic Myths, 3-68; Bulfinch, 
Age of Fable, or Stories of Gods and Heroes, 1-12, 161-170, 178 
188, 190-191. 



How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 37 

HOW THE GREEKS TAUGHT MEN TO BE FREE 

15. How the Greeks Governed Themselves. Though 
the Greeks Uved in a small land and all spoke the same 
language, they had no single king or common government. 
They did, indeed, regard each other as brothers and called 
all who did not speak their tongue "barbarians." Yet 
their cities could seldom agree, and often fought against 
each other in savage wars. 

Since the people of each little plain were shut off from 
their neighbors by mountains they loved to rule them- 
selves in their own way. On some central hill, easy of 
defense, they built shining temples to their protecting 
gods, and close under these clustered the white dwellings 
of the townsfolk. Round about, strong walls were set up 
to shield them from their enemies. Those who preferred 
to live on their little farms in the country, however, had 
also a share in the common life and might take refuge 
behind the fortifications when invaders appeared. Such 
a little state the Greeks called a "city." And to the 
Greek his city was his fatherland. In it he usually spent 
all his life. He knew all his fellow citizens well, and for 
his city and its gods he thought he ought to lay down his 
life if need came. Greece had many such cities, but the 
most famous are Athens and Sparta. 

In early times the Greek cities had kings. But later 
most of them got rid of their kings and became little 
republics. All the citizens met from time to time in 
public assemblies, where they chose their officers from 
year to year and where any one who wished could speak 
about public matters. 

But the Greeks always had trouble to keep their 
4 





o 



«^ 



How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 39 

liberty. Often some rich or clever man would seize the 
power and compel his fellow citizens to obey him. The 
Greeks called such a man a "tyrant." By this word 
they did not mean a bad ruler, but one who had taken 
the government without proper authority. Some tyrants 
were wise and ruled well. Yet most of the Greeks did 
not like tyrants, and they tried hard to get rid of them. 

16. Athenians and Spartans. The two greatest cities 
of Greece were not at all alike, and could seldom agree. 
The people of Athens loved new things; the people of 
Sparta loved old things. The Athenians loved what was 
beautiful; the Spartans only what had practical use. The 
Athenians excelled in music, in art, in learning; the Spar- 
tans excelled in war, and thought everything else foolish. 

Athens always loved liberty. She was the first great 
repubHc in the world. In. her assemblies all her citizens 
took part in making the laws. They met on a hill called 
the Pnyx near the center of the city and, sitting on the 
stone seats which rose one above the other in the form of 
a semicircle, listened eagerly to speeches on public ques- 
tions. Any citizen could speak who wished, but before 
doing so he must put a wreath on his head and take his 
stand, facing the people, beside an altar. If he spoke well 
the Athenians gave him loud applause and were often per- 
suaded to vote what he wished. Exciting indeed was the 
contest when great speakers took different sides of a ques- 
tion, and the feelings of the people were swayed by their 
stirring words now on this side, now on that. 

Because the laws of Athens were made by the Assem- 
bly, the Athenians greatly prized the power of speaking 
well. Every citizen was taught to speak in public and 
to take his share in the business of the city. But the 



40 



The Story of Old Europe mid Young America 



best orators naturally had great influence. Carried away 
by their powerful appeals, the Athenians were often led 
to decide great questions rather suddenly. So it always 
meant much for Athens whether her most skillful speakers 
were wise statesmen or persons who tried to win applause 
by urging the people to do what was popular instead of 
what was best for the state. 

The Athenian must serve his city not only in the Assem- 
bly but also, if need came, on the field of battle, so he 
was trained to handle spear and shield and to be a soldier. 
In war the Athenians were always brave and quick. 
The little Athenian boy went to two 
schools, — the music school and the 
wrestling school. 
About daylight he 
set out from home 
under the care of a 
faithful old slave, 
and meeting other 
boys of the neigh- 
borhood at some 
appointed place, 
marched with them 
to his task. Squat- 
ting on the floor 
or seated on low 
benches, the little 
Athenians were 
soon learning from 
the master of the music school how to read and write 
and to do very simple examples in arithmetic by means 
of a counting machine. But the master wanted most of 




AN ATHENIAN ORATOR OR LEADER OF THE PEOPLE 
ADDRESSING THE ASSEMBLY 



How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 



41 




all to have them learn the stirring poems of Homer and 
of the other famous poets, to play well on musical instru- 
ments, and to sing. The 
Athenians always felt it made 
people nobler to love music. 
In • the wrestling school the 
youths learned to cHmb, to 
run, to jump, to dance, and 
to throw the javelin. 

When the boys were fifteen 
they went to a higher kind 
of school for physical training 
called the gymnasium. Here 

they were taught to be ath- an Athenian schoolboy learning 

. TO PLAY ON THE LYRE 

leteS and to compete in the From an Athenian painted vase now 

in the Berlin Museum 

games. 

At eighteen the young Athenian was ready to become 
a citizen. Now came a great ceremony, when all the 
youth were brought to the public assembly and, before 
all the grown men of the city, given spear and shield. 
Raising their hands, they swore that they would never 
disgrace their arms or desert a companion in the ranks, 
that they would obey the laws of Athens and the 
religion of the city, and that when the time came they 
would give over Athens to their children greater than 
they had received it. The boys then marched away to be 
trained in arms and to serve as soldiers for two years. 
When they returned they were free to live as they pleased 
and to share in all the advantages and pleasures of their 
beautiful city. But though every citizen was thus ready 
to fight as a soldier, the Athenians cared for many other 
things besides war. 



42 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




As Athens was near the sea, many of her people 
became merchants and grew rich. Athenian sailors were 

bold and skill- 
ful, and Athens 
had more ships 
than any other 
city of Greece. 
Her people 
loved objects 
of beauty, and 



From a vase painting bpaiCd liU cX 

SPARTAN BOYS AT GYMNASTIC EXERCISES npn SP in PrPCt- 

ing public buildings and statues of the gods. But most 
of all, Athenians loved to talk and debate with each other 
and to learn what was new. Eagerly did they listen to 
the philosophers or wise men, like Socrates and Plato, 
who taught new ideas about life and the world. From 
all Greece wise men came to Athens, where they knew 
they would be heard. 

But the Athenians had their faults. Too often they 
changed their minds. Then also, though they believed 
in liberty for themselves, their city was filled with slaves 
who had to do nearly all the hard work and had few 
rights. In this respect, however, the Athenians were 
only like all the other Greeks, and indeed like all other 
ancient peoples. 

Unlike the Athenians, the Spartans lived as if always 
at war. When the Spartan boy was only seven he was 
taken from home altogether and made to live in barracks. 
He was trained to run, to jump, to wrestle, but especially 
to carry arms and to use the spear and shield. Above 
all he was taught to endure fatigue, pain, and hunger, 



How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 



43 



and never to cry out if hurt. The Spartan soldier must 
never run from the enemy, and if he lost his shield in 
battle he was disgraced for life. Of learning the Spartan 
youth was taught little. The Spartans despised useless 
talk, and trained their boys to say everything as directly 
as possible in the fewest words. 

The Spartan girls, too, were given an education much 
like that of the boys. They also were taught to run, to 
wrestle, to box, and to be strong and vigorous. 

When the Spartan boy grew up he still gave all his 
time to warlike exercise. He must live with his mess- 
mates, and could not return home to stay until he was 
thirty. Even then he must not be a merchant or a work- 
man. These pursuits were held unworthy of a Spartan. 

Perhaps this warlike life of the Spartans was neces- 
sary , for they lived 
amid a numerous 
race of people 
whom they had 
conquered and = 
made slaves. 
These "Helots" ^^>^ 
the Spartans 
treated very cru- _ 
elly, so they al- 
ways feared that 
they would rise 
against them. 

In many other 

„^^,^„ O^r^-i-^ „,^„ THE "walls" OF SPARTA 

ways oparta was 

just the opposite of Athens. Because the Spartans 

loved old things they still had kings. Queerly enough. 




44 



The Story of Old Europe and Voting America 




From a vase painting 
THE OLYMPIC GAMES 

.4 dose finish in the 210-yard dash at the stadium 



they always had two at the same time. UnHke Athens, 
Sparta had no great temples, buildings, or adornments. 

She did not even 
have walls, ' ' except 
the shields of her 
sons." 

The Spartans 
were the best sol- 
diers and athletes 
in Greece, but they 
did little to make 
the world wiser or 
happier. Yet they gave us a wonderful example of 
courage and devotion to duty. When a man gladly 
sacrifices himself for his country we still say, "He died 
like a Spartan." 

17. Things Which Brought the Greeks Together. 
Though their cities often fought each other, the Greeks 
had many things to draw them together. They spoke 
the same language, and had the same gods, and the same 
poems and books. They also believed in and used the 
same "oracles." In early times, men always believed 
they could communicate with the gods. The Greeks 
thought this could be done through oracles. These were 
sacred places where a priest or priestess, on being asked 
a question, would go into a trance and give an answer 
which was supposed to come from a god. The most 
famous oracle was that of the god Apollo at Delphi, and 
thither the Greeks usually went when about to undertake 
some important work or adventure. The answer given 
by the Delphic priestess was often so worded that it 
might mean one of two things. So if the undertaking 



How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 



45 



failed when the answer had seemed favorable, the Greeks 
thought that they had not rightly understood Apollo. 

Besides the oracles the Greeks had in common great 
athletic contests in honor of the gods. The Greeks always 
loved athletics, and eagerly indeed did the picked youth 
of the various cities contend for the prizes. These, 
however, were never money, but some simple thing like 
a crown of laurel, which, however, meant more to them 
than gold. No man who had done a mean thing 
could contend, and to commit a foul 
in the games was eternal disgrace. 

The most famous contest was 
the great Olympic games held once 
every four years in honor of Zeus. 
During the games all wars were sus- 
pended and people journeyed from 
all parts of Greece to Olympia. 
Splendid indeed was the scene, when 
amid the applause of the throng in 
the stadium the well-trained athletes 
struggled for victory in sprinting, in 
running, in wrestling, in throwing the 
discus, and in the all-round contest. 

Whoever won an Olympic crown 
was hailed as a man who had brought 
the highest honor to his native city. 
When he returned home he was 
received with music and shouts. 
Sometimes a hole was even broken 
through the walls that he might pass 
through in triumph. The statue of the victor in the 
Olympic games was set up in some public place, and he 




THE SPEAR BEARER 

A famous statue by Poly- 

clelus, a celebrated Creek 

sculptor. The original 

is in the Naples 

Museum 



46 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




THE DISCUS THROWER 



was treated with the greatest respect all the rest of his life. 
1 8. Greece Attacked by the Persians. In early 
times a great danger threatened Greece. 
The Persians, a people of western 
Asia, were rapidly conquering all the 
surrounding nations. Babylon, Palestine, 
Phoenicia, and even Egypt were over- 
come by their arms. It seemed that the 
Great King of Persia would soon rule 
the world. 

In some ways the Persians were a 
great people, but they took away from 
the nations which they conquered all 
right to think and act for themselves. 

How could the world make progress if everything were 

decided by the will of one king? 

Finally the armies of the Great King conquered Asia 

Minor. In this region there were many Greek cities, 

for bands of Greeks often sailed forth from home and 

founded new cities on coasts and islands, sometimes far 

away from their native shores. 

Naturally the Athenians sent soldiers and ships to 

aid the Greeks of Asia Minor 

when they rebelled against Per- 
sia. But this act so enraged 

the Persian king Darius that he 

determined to conquer Greece 

itself. He could not endure 

that those people of Europe 

should dare to defy him when 

the greatest nations of Asia trembled as his slaves. So 

set was he upon revenge that he ordered a slave to 




THE WRESTLERS 



How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 



47 




From frieze at Susa 
A PERSIAN SOLDIER 



stand behind his throne whenever he dined and say, lest 
he should forget, "Master, remember the Athenians." 

The Great King sent messengers to 
Greece to order her people to submit and 
to send to him earth and water as a sign 
that he owned their land. How could the 
Greek cities, which did not even have a 
common government, refuse? 

Many of the cities were terrified, and 
surrendered. But Sparta and Athens defied 
Darius. They even threw his messengers- 
into a well and told them to take as much 
earth and water as they wanted. Then all 
the cities that stood firm formed a league 
to resist Persia. The Spartans were 
chosen leaders because they were the best soldiers. 
19. The Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.) Soon the great 
Persian army came. Sailing across the sea from Asia 
Minor, they captured all the islands 
and finally landed on the plain of Mar- 
athon near Athens. There were at least 
one hundred thousand men, and their 
white tents covered all the shore. 

On the hills overlooking the plain 
were the Athenians, only about ten 
thousand in all. In haste they had 
sent to Sparta for help, but the Spar- 
tans made excuses and delayed coming. 
The only aid the Athenians had was 
from a little town called Plataea, not 
far away. In days past the Athenians had protected the 
Plataeans, and they were grateful. When the news came 




From a vase painting 
A GREEK HEAVILY ARMED 
SOLDIER 



48 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



that Athens was in danger, every man and boy in Plataea 
who could carry spear and shield marched at once to 
join their friends. But of these brave soldiers there were 
only one thousand. 

It seemed impossible that the Athenians should have 
any chance against the great Persian host. But some 
things not to be seen at first glance favored them. They 
were free men, defending their wives and little ones, 
while the soldiers of the Great King fought only because 
they were ordered to do so. It is even said that some 
of them had to be driven into battle with whips. The 
Greeks also had better weapons. They wore bronze 
breastplates, and helmets with horsehair crests, while 
their legs were protected by bronze pieces called greaves. 
They bore thick, round shields, and carried long 
spears. Since boyhood they had exercised 




THE BATTLE OF MARATHOM 



in gymnastics, and were strong and skillful. The wea- 
pons of the Persians were much lighter, and some of 



How the Greeks T might Men to he Free 



49 




THE MARATHON RUNNER 



them had only armor made of wickerwork. Athens, 
too, had the advantage of a brave general, Miltiades, in 
whom all had confidence. 

Though his countrymen were 
so few in numbers, Miltiades 
thought their best chance was 
to attack. So he drew up his 
warriors in a line as long as 
the whole front of the Persian 
host, but only a few ranks 
deep, while the masses of the 
Persians seemed to fill the whole 
plain. Yet when he gave the 
signal the Greeks charged boldly 
down the hill. On they came, 
with their long line of gleaming shields, each warrior 
shouting the war cry, and running bravely forward. 

Now with a crash the men of Asia and .the men of 
Europe met. But in spite of their numbers both wings 
of the Persian army were broken, and fled. For a time 
their center, where the best Persian troops were sta- 
tioned, stood firm, but the Athenians closed in from 
both sides, and soon the whole great Persian army was 
running to its ships. 

At home in Athens, as a famous story tells, the old 
men and the women and children waited anxiously to 
hear the news. How long the time seemed! But at last 
they saw a runner covered with dust. He had fought 
that day at Marathon, and then sped over the twenty- 
four miles to Athens to bear the news. Exhausted, he 
struggled into the eager crowd. "Victory!" he gasped, 
and fell dead. 



50 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



20. How the Spartans Held the Pass at Thermopylae. 

The Athenians were overjoyed with their success. But 
their leaders knew well that the Persians would come 
again. The wisest statesman among them, Themistocles, 
told them that they must be ready to fight on sea as well 
as on land. On his advice they built many more ships. 
In spite of his rage over the defeat of his army at 



■' ^ v.- ^ lit 




THE MARCH OF XERXES GREAT ARMY 



Marathon, King Darius was so busy with other things 
that he could not attack Greece again. But after his 
death the new king, Xerxes, took up the quarrel. 

From all parts of his vast empire he collected soldiers. 
How many men there were in his huge army we cannot 
tell exactly. The Greeks thought there were over five 
million, and stories were told of how, wherever the multi- 
tude marched, they drank up all the pools and streams 



How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 51. 

and devoured all the food, so that when they had passed 
the inhabitants starved to death. There were among 
them soldiers from forty-six nations, clad in all sorts of 
garments and armed with all sorts of weapons. 

Xerxes assembled a great fleet, too, much larger than 
that of all Greece. But lest storms should hinder, he 
determined to lead his army by land. A great bridge 
of boats was therefore built across the narrow strait 
between Asia Minor and Europe, and over this the 
long procession marched while the Great King watched 
from a marble throne. Then they journeyed southward 
to assail Greece, while the fleet, sailing along the coast, 
kept as nearly even with them as possible. All Greece 
was terrified, and some of the cities sent messengers to 
Xerxes, begging to be spared from destruction. 

But there were still brave hearts in Sparta and Athens. 
In northern Greece, between steep mountains and the 
sea, is a narrow pass called Thermopylae, the "Hot 
Gates," because here was a spring of warm water. 
Through this the Persian hoet must march. But in this 
pass were three hundred Spartans led by one of their 
kings, Leonidas, with a number of allies from other cities. 

The Spartans seemed a mere handful of men against 
so many Persian soldiers, and Xerxes contemptuously 
ordered the Greeks to give up their arms. "Come and 
take them," replied Leonidas. 

Only a few Persians could enter the pass at one time; 
again and again they tried, but were always hurled back 
by the brave Spartans. Even Xerxes' best troops were 
beaten. For two days Leonidas held the pass. 

Finally a traitor Greek told the Persians of a path 
over the hills by which they might fall upon the Spartans 



52 



The Story of Old Etirope and Young America 



from the rear. For the Greeks to stay in the pass longer 
was certain death. But by a law of Sparta her warriors 
must never flee. Leonidas and his three hundred felt 
they could not desert their post. Struck by their brave 
example, many of the allies said they would stay, too. 

So Leonidas 
and his men held 
their ground and 
fought till every 
man perished. 
But heaps upon 
heaps of slain 
Persians proved 
how bravely they 
had struggled. 
The pass of Ther- 
mopylae was lost, 
but the world can 
never forget the 
example of Leoni- 
das and his three 
hundred. Of such 
stuff were Spar- 
tans made. 

In later days 

a monument was 

built to mark the 

place where the 

heroes died. Upon it were carved no high-sounding words 

of praise, but a simple verse which meant a great deal more : 

"Go, passer-by, to Sparta tell 

Obedient to her law we fell." 




LEONIDAS AND HIS MEN HOLDING THE PASS 
OF THERMOPYLAE 



How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 53 

21. How Greece Was Saved. The Persians now 
marched on and overran northern Greece. Even Athens 







From a wall painting 
AN ATHENIAN WAR GALLEY 



could not be defended. But her people were still uncon- 
quered. Led by the clever Themistocles, they embarked 
upon the ships which they had so wisely built. The 
women and children were taken to a place of safety, but 
the men again put to sea. Though the Persians cap- 
tured the city and ruthlessly destroyed the buildings, 
they had not destroyed the real Athens. Athens was in 
the fleet, still eager to strike a blow for freedom. 

The other Greeks now wanted to sail away to defend 
their own homes, but Themistocles felt it was better to 
fight the fleet of Xerxes at once. So, pretending to be 
a secret friend to the Persians, he sent a message to their 
king telHng him that the Greeks were quarreling among 
themselves and that if he would send vessels to close up 
the entrance to the bay where their ships lay, he could 
easily destroy them. 

Xerxes did so, and the next day he had a lofty throne 
set up on a hill overlooking the sea that he might watch 
his ships overcome the Greeks. Since he had three times 
as many vessels, he felt sure that he would win. 

In the blue Bay of Salamis the great battle took place. 
5 



54 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



Driven by their long oars, ship dashed against ship, each 
striving to crash into the other with her sharp beak. 
The air was filled with arrows and darts, and above the 
din rose the fierce shouts of the warriors. Sometimes 
the ships came side by side, and the men swarmed over 
the rails to fight it out hand to hand. But the Greeks 
were the better sailors, and, moreover, were thinking of 
their wives and little ones, whom 
they must save from the enemy. 
When the battle was over the vast 




From a painting by Cormon 
THE TRIUMPHAL RETURN OF THE GREEKS AFTER THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS 

Persian fleet had been beaten and many of its vessels sunk. 
Xerxes had still a large army and many ships left. 
But his heart failed him. He knew now what manner of 
men the Greeks were. So he returned to Asia, leaving 
behind merely a part of his army to carry on the war. 
These soldiers the Greeks overcame the next year in an- 
other great land battle. Thus Greece was saved. The 
Persian king might still tyrannize over the people of 
Asia, but Europe was to be free. Had the Greeks been 
frightened by mere numbers, all would have been lost. 



How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 55 

But Marathon and Salamis showed the world what a 
few brave men, who prefer death to slavery, can do. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. In ancient Greece each city 
governed itself in its own way. 2. The two greatest cities, 
Athens and Sparta, were rivals, j. Athens was a republic, 
and her people were all trained to take part in public affairs. 

4. The Athenians were famous for their love of learning and 
of beauty. 5. Sparta was ruled by kings, and her people 
were taught to love nothing but war. 6. Some things, 
such as the oracles and the great athletic games, drew the 
people of different Greek cities together. 7. Because the 
Persians were conquering all the nations of the world, they 
attacked Greece. 8. The Athenians won a glorious victory 
at Marathon, p. Then the Persian king, Xerxes, collected 
a gigantic army to cnish Greece. 10. At Thermopylae three 
hundred Spartans gave their lives to save their country. 11. 
Greece was finally saved by a victory in a great sea fight at 
Salamis. 12. The defeat of the Persians meant that the 
people of Europe were to rule themselves. 

Study Questions, i. Tell the way in which a Greek city 
was built. 2. What different kinds of government did Greek 
cities have? j. Make a list of differences between Athens and 
Sparta. 4. Tell what the Athenians did in their Assembly. 

5. If you had been an Athenian boy, what would you have 
studied? 6. What did the Spartan boys and girls learn? 
7. Explain what oracles were. 8. What would you have 
seen had you been present at the Olympic games? g. What 
would have happened had you won an Olympic crown? 10. 
Why did the Persian king think it would be easy to conquer 
Greece? 11. Why did the Greeks not submit to the Persians? 
12. Tell the story of Marathon as if you yourself had fought 
on the Greek side. ij. Why was the advice which Themistocles 
gave the Athenians after Marathon very wise? 14. Why were 
many Greeks terrified at the approach of Xerxes' army? 75. 
Tell the story of Thermopylae. 16. Should not the Spartans 
have retreated when the Persians found the path over the 
mountains? 77. Why did not the capture of Athens by Xerxes 
end the war? 18. Picture to yotuself the battle of Salamis, 



56 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



and tell what you see. ig. Why did Xerxes give up trying 
to conquer Greece when he had so many men and ships left? 

Suggested Readings. Guerber, The Story of the Greeks, 62- 
136; Hall, Life in Ancient Greece, 11-166; Harding, Stories of 
Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men; Tappan, The Story of the Greek 
People; Yonge, Young Folks' History of Greece; Havell, Tales 
from Herodotus. 



SOME THINGS THE CITY OF ATHENS 
TAUGHT THE WORLD 

22. The Age of Pericles Begins. All the Greeks 
rejoiced in the defeat of the Persians. Nearly all had 
had a share in the glory, but the Athenians had won the 
most praise. When her citizens returned home after 
the battle of Salamis they found Athens in ruins. But 
they were now so filled with hope and courage that they 

eagerly set to work to repair the 
damage. Soon the city rose, new and 
more beautiful than before. 

More than ever Athens became the 
first city in Greece, and for about fifty 
years flourished to a degree hitherto 
unknow^n. During a part of this 
time her aftairs were directed by a 
great statesman named Pericles. His 
ideas were so wise, and his fellow 
citizens had such confidence in him, 
they followed his advice in nearly 
everything. So people have called this 
golden period in the life of Athens 
the "Age of Pericles." (461-429 b.c.) 

23. How Athens Looked in the Age of Pericles. In 
the very center of the city stood a rocky hill with steep 




HEAD OF PERICLES 

After original in the 
British Musettm 



58 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



sides called the Acropolis. In early times this had been 
the central fort, or "citadel," but its use was now very 
different. To the Athenian it seemed the most wonder- 
ful spot in the whole world, for upon it were the temples 
of his gods, the bright colors of which, shining in the clear 
Greek sunlight, could be seen for a long distance. 

A great flight of marble steps, crowned by an imposing 
entrance adorned with columns, led to the summit of 
the Acropohs. As he passed through this, the visitor to 
the city might well pause in astonishment, for before him 
stood a gigantic bronze statue of the goddess Athena, the 
special protector of the city. Seventy feet high it towered. 
Yet it was even more notable for beauty than for size. 




PIRAEUS - PHALERUM 

SARONIC GULF 



THE CITY OF ATHENS AND ITS HARBOR OF PIRAEUS 



Some Things the City of Athens Taught the World 59 

since it was the work of the famous Athenian, Phidias, 
probably the greatest sculptor that ever drove chisel. 










THE PARTHENON, RESTORED 

This temple, erected in honor of the goddess Athena, was the most 
beautiful building of the Creeks 

Behind it, however, stood a much greater marvel. 
This was the temple of Athena, the far-famed Parthenon, 
the most celebrated building that the world has ever 
seen. Though not especially large, it was so perfect in 
its harmony and grace that it has never been equaled. 

Like so many Greek buildings it was adorned by rows 
of simple but beautiful columns, while the spaces on its 
front and sides were filled by carvings designed by the 
matchless Phidias and executed by himself and his pupils. 
These carvings represented scenes from the Greek myths, 
and were colored so that they seemed almost alive. 

Behind the columns on the temple wall ran another 
series of carvings representing the Athenians holding a 
great procession in honor of Athena, while inside the 
building stood a second statue of the goddess. This 
was made of ivory and gold, and the skill of Phidias had 
succeeded in making it even more imposing than the 
great bronze figure. 



6o The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



Other notable buildings also stood on the Acropolis. 
One of the most interesting had a splendid porch, the 

roof of which was 
supported by col- 
umns carved to 
represent graceful 
maidens. 

Under one 
side of the hill 
was erected the 
spacious open-air 
theater. Here all 
the people of the 
city often came 
together to see 
plays, for the 
Athenians were 
almost as skillful 
in writing and 
acting these as in carving statues and erecting buildings. 
Though the Acropolis was the center of Athens, many 
striking objects were to be seen in other parts of the city. 
Among them was a huge unfinished temple of Zeus and 
another fine building, often called a temple of Theseus, 
though this is not its right name. In the outskirts of 
the city were several places where there were beautiful 
groves of trees, attractive walks, and exercise grounds 
for athletes— parks, we might now call them. Here the 
youth of Athens trained for the games or practiced in 
the use of arms. But older men came to listen to the 
wise sayings of the philosophers. In such places Socrates 
or Plato might have been seen seated upon a bench or 




~, -" — ~pra 



PORCH OF THE CARYATIDES 

The graceful figures upholding the roof of the porch typify 

the enslavement of the ivomen of Caryae by the 

Greeks after the Persian invasion 



Some Things the City of Athens Taught the World 6i 

walking to and fro in earnest conversation with friends 
and pupils. 

Athens was not situated directly on the sea, but it 
had a good harbor five miles away. In ancient times this 
would have been seen filled with the white sails of the 
Athenian fleet. The port was connected with the city 
by the famous "Long Walls," so that no enemA^ could 
ever cut off Athens from supplies. 

24. Socrates, the Philosopher. Many visitors to 
Athens would have been more eager to see the great 
men of the city than even its most splendid buildings. 
Among such notable citizens were Pericles the statesman, 
and Phidias the artist. 

Especially famous were the philosophers, as the wise 
men were called, who in the groves and other public places 
used to teach such citizens as cared to listen to them. 
Most of the Athenians were very fond of hearing their 
debates. 

Wisest among the philosophers was Socrates, who 
lived a little later than the time of Pericles. Though a 
man of great strength who had been a brave soldier, 
Socrates was a very ugly person to look at. Moreover, 
because he was really wise, he knew that the learning of 
even the greatest man is after all very little. So he put 
on no great airs, as some philosophers did, but mingled 
in a quiet way with the other Athenians, and asked 
questions. 

But the questions Socrates asked made everybody 
think, and thus many became wiser and better. This 
great man knew that people learn far more by puzzling 
their brains about matters than by listening to lengthy 
speeches from others. Many loved him, and some of 



62 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

his pupils, like Plato, also became great philosophers. 

Yet there were Athenians who were annoyed by 
Socrates' questions. They thought they knew a great 
deal, and then became angry when he put questions 
to them in such a way as to show that they had made 
mistakes. 

Finally his enemies accused him of not paying proper 




From engra\'ing after painting by Monsiau 
SOCRATES TALKING WITH HIS FRIENDS 

respect to the gods of the city. Since he would not 
defend himself, he was condemned to drink a cup of 
poison. His friends made a plan for his escape, but the 
brave old man said that it was his duty as an Athenian 
to obey the laws even if they were unjust. Teaching his 
pupils in his last conversation that there is another life 
beyond the grave, the wisest Athenian died just as 
bravely as the sternest Spartan of them all. 



How the Greeks Failed 63 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. Under the lead of Pericles Athens 
became the greatest city of Greece. 2. During the "Age of 
Pericles" Athens was adorned by wonderful buildings and 
statues. J. On the Acropolis stood the famous Parthenon, a 
temple to the goddess Athena. 4. Other notable objects in 
Athens were the entrance to the Acropolis, the bronze figure 
of Athena, the porch of the maidens, the theater, the so-called 
temple of Theseus, and the "Long Walls." 5. Socrates the 
philosopher was one of the greatest men of Athens. 6. He 
taught by asking questions. 7. When unjustly condemned to 
death he thought it better to die than to break the laws. 

Study Questions, i. Who was Pericles? 2. Why has the 
world remembered how Athens looked in the ' 'Age of Pericles ' ' ? 

3. Make an imaginary visit to Athens, and tell what you see. 

4. Where might the notable men of Athens have been seen? 

5. How did Socrates show that he was really wise? 6. Why 
was his way of teaching a good one? 7. Why did some Athe- 
nians wish to put him to death? 8. Why did Socrates obey an 
unjust law? 

Suggested Readings. Guerber, The Story of the Greeks, 
136-152, 157-164, 173-179; Hall, Life in Ancient Greece, 167- 
253; White, Plutarch for Boys and Girls, 136-167; Tappan, 
The Story of the Greek People; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, 
Heroes, and Men; Yonge, Young Folks' History of Greece; 
Creighton, Heroes of European History. 



HOW THE GREEKS FAILED 

25. The Decline of Greece. The Greeks were brave 
and wise in many ways, but they had great faults also. 
They could seldom agree, and their cities were continually 
fighting with each other. They did not see until it was 
too late that all Greece was more important than any 
one city. 

When Athens was so powerful, she selfishly began to 
bring other cities into subjection to herself, and treated 



64 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



them rather harshly. Other cities, led by Sparta, became 
jealous. So a great war broke out between Sparta and 
Athens in which nearly all Greece took part. For almost 
thirty years it went on. Many men were slain in the 
battles and terrible damage was done. 

Finally Athens was defeated, and though she was not 
destroyed she lost much of her importance. But though 
the Spartans could fight successfully they could not lead 
Greece even so well as Athens. Their rule was so stern 
that their allies too rebelled, and finally Sparta was 
defeated by another city named Thebes. Thus Greece 
became weak and unable to defend herself. 

26. How Philip of Macedon Gained Power. To the 
north of Greece lies a region which in ancient times was 
called Macedon, or Macedonia. The people of this 
country were much like the Greeks, though more rough 
and barbarous. But they were good soldiers, and their 
kings were wise and crafty. 

Their first great king was Philip, who came to the 

throne just when Greece was 
growing weak. He saw his 
chance and determined to bring 
all Greece under his power. 

First Philip im- 
proved his army. 
He armed his men 
with very long 
spears and taught 
them to form them- 
selves in bodies six- 
teen ranks deep. When the Macedonians leveled their 
long spears and advanced upon the enemy with steady 




THE MACEDONIAN PHALANX IN BATTLE ARR^VY 

With its fourteen-foot lances, the phalanx was powerful 

in attack. Its weaknesses were its inability to 

change front rapidly and its unsuitabil- 

ity for hand-to-hand fighting 



How the Greeks Failed 



65 



step they bore down all before them, for none could 

break through the bristling line of spear points. 

Philip encour- 



aged the Greek cities 
to fight each other, 
and, when he saw 
a chance, crushed 
first one city and 
then another. Fi- 
nally, when he was 
ready, he overthrew 
Athens and Thebes 
together in a great 
battle, and thus 
became really the 
master of the whole 
country. 

Yet he did not 
rule very harshly, for his purpose was to win the support 
of the Greeks for a great plan he had formed. In olden 
times Greece had nearl}^ been conquered by the Persians. 
PhiHp dreamed that with himself as leader little Greece 
should conquer the great Persian Empire. But such 
glory was not for Philip. .While celebrating in great 
splendor the marriage of his daughter, he was treacher- 
ously stabbed by a man whom he had offended. 

27. The Youth of Alexander the Great. When Philip 
was thus slain many Greeks rejoiced, for they thought 
Greece would again be free. But never were men more 
mistaken. Alexander, the son of Philip, was one of the 
most remarkable men the world has ever known. Though 
only twenty years old when his father died (336 B.C.), he 




From a gold medallion struck by Alexander 
PIULIP IT, FATHER OF ALEXANDER 



66 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




was already able to do great things. Quickly he taught 
the Greek cities that they must obey him, and then he 

eagerly carried on the prepara- 
tions which his father had begun 
for the invasion of Persia. 

Alexander was remarkably 
quick and impetuous. Even as a 
boy he had shown that he feared 
nothing and could achieve where 
others failed. When no one could 
ride a fierce but wonderfully swift 
horse which had been brought 
to his father's court, Alexander 
sprang upon his back and easily 
tamed him. He had seen that 
the steed was frightened chiefly 
by his own shadow, and that 
when his head was turned to the sun he became docile. 
Among all his horses Alexander 
always loved Bucephalus best, 
and that brave steed carried him 
safely through many a battle. 

But Alexander was fond of 
books, too. His father had en- 
gaged as his teacher the great 
philosopher, Aristotle, and the 
prince paid careful attention to 
his lessons. He liked best, how- 
ever, to study about exciting 
deeds of ancient heroes. So much did Alexander love 
the poems of Homer that it is said he could recite 
them by heart. He believed that Achilles was his own 



In the Munich Glyptothek 
.\LEXANDER AT THE AGE OF 
TWENTY 

He was possessed of high physical 

courage, impulsive energy, 

and a lofty intellect 




ALEXANDER TAMING BUCEPHALUS 



How the Greeks Failed 



67 



ancestor, and was determined that he, too, would be a 
hero and conquer cities greater than Troy. 

28. How Alexander Carried Greek Ideas into Asia. 

When all was ready Alexander crossed with his army into 




— \ ^d-^^^^ 



ARISTOTLE TEACHING ALEXANDER 



Under Aristotle, the greatest of Greek thinkers and teachers, Alexander learned to know 
and love all that was best in Greek art and science 

Asia. He did not take a great number of soldiers, but 
those he selected were brave and well disciplined. 

How impossible it seemed that he should destroy the 
great Persian Empire which stretched thousands of miles 
on every side, and had millions of inhabitants! Yet he 
and other wise Greeks knew that Persia was not really 
so strong as it appeared. Only the Persian king and a 



68 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

few of his nobles had any real power. The nations which 
they ruled had nothing to say in their own affairs, and 
cared little whether they were governed by Persia or by 
some other nation. 

Wonderful were the achievements of the young 
Macedonian king. The Persian armies went down like 
paper before the long spears of his well-drilled soldiers. 
Odds of ten to one made no difference. With great daring 




After a mosaic from Pompeii, in Naples Museum 
THE BATTLE OF ISSUS (333 B.C.) 

Leading his men in person, Alexander plunged into the thickest of the fray, while the Persian 

king was so timid that, as soon as he saw his troops giving way, he dismounted 

from his chariot and fled from the field on a swift steed 

Alexander marched into the very heart of the Persian 
Empire, crossing rivers, climbing mountains, and over- 
coming all obstacles. Finally all the great Persian cities fell 
into his hands, and their king, who bore the old Persian 
name of Darius, was slain at the battle of Issus. Alex- 
ander marched even to distant India, where likewise he was 
victorious. Before he was thirty years old he was master 
of all southwestern Asia as well as of Egypt and Greece. 
But Alexander could do more than win battles. He 
had great plans for improving the condition of the people 



How the Greeks Failed 69 

whom he conquered. Wherever he went he founded new 
cities and introduced the Greek language and Greek 
learning. Greek ideas spread everywhere. Many of 
these cities long remained important, but of them all the 
greatest was Alexandria, founded at the mouth of the 
Nile in Egypt. 

29. The End of Alexander's Empire. But though 
Alexander could conquer the world he could not conquer 
himself. Always high spirited, he became more and 
more vain, and gave way to fits of anger when any one 
differed with him. Flattered by the servility of the 
people of Asia, he began to adopt all the pomp of a Per- 
sian king and even let himself be worshiped as a god. 
Worst of all, he imitated the Persians in carousing and 
drinking deeply of wine. No wonder that his life came 
to an early end. When only thirty-two he was carried 
off by a sudden fever. 

When Alexander was gone there was no one who could 
rule his vast empire. His generals divided his dominions 
among themselves, but they were not wise statesmen 
and soon began to fight with each other. All Asia fell 
into confusion. Though the descendants of some of 
these generals ruled parts of the empire for a long time, 
it could never be united again. 

If the cities of Greece itself had been brave and strong 
as of old, they might now have regained their indepen- 
dence. But the old spirit was not there. Instead of 
joining to resist Macedon, they began again to contend 
against each other in long and useless wars. Thus they 
were once more helpless when a new power, far greater 
even than Macedon, appeared to interfere with their 
affairs. 
6 



70 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

But though the Greeks thus failed in the end, they 
had already done a wonderful work for the world. No 
people could see their buildings, their statues, their 
paintings, without trying to imitate them. No nation 
could read their poems, their books, their philosophy, 
without being moved to higher thoughts. Even when 
Greece was conquered she became the teacher of the 
ruder people who enslaved her. 

30. The Spread of Hellenistic Civilization; Wonders 
of Alexandria. Since the conquests of Alexander had 
spread Greek ideas so widely, however, Athens no longer 
remained the all-important center from which Greek 
civilization reached other peoples. Among the cities 
outside of Greece famous for learning and art Alexandria 
in Egypt became the chief. Built as she was near the 
meeting place of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and favored 
by a splendid harbor, this new city soon became the seat 
of a rich commerce. 

When the empire of Alexander the Great went to 
pieces Egypt fell to the share of one of his generals named 
Ptolemy. He was followed in power by a long line of 
rulers, all of whom have the same name. Nearly all the 
Ptolemies were interested in Greek learning, and under 
their fostering care Alexandria grew in time to rival and 
even surpass Athens itself in objects of interest and 
beauty. 

At the mouth of the harbor of Alexandria was built 
the famous Pharos, or lighthouse, which was counted one 
of the seven wonders of the world. In the city itself 
stood a group of magnificent buildings called the "Mu- 
seum." In this was kept the celebrated Alexandrine 
Library, which contained copies of the writings of all the 



72 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



ancient authors. Though its books would look queer to 
us, because they were only rolls of paper made from an 

Egyptian plant 
called papyrus, 
skillfully written 
by hand instead of 
being printed, it 
was the first large 
library of which 
history tells. The 
museum contained 
also halls for lec- 
tures, and gardens 
filled with curious 
plants. It had 
even a menagerie 
of wild beasts 
brought from dis- 
tant lands. 

Alexandria had 
not merely light- 
houses and fine 
buildings but also great philosophers and other scholars 
who vied with those of Athens. Among them was Euclid, 
the great mathematician. 

The scholars of this later time were especially inter- 
ested in some things about which the earlier Greeks had 
not known a great deal. Among these were astronomy 
and geography. Regarding seas, rivers, and distant 
lands the Greeks had of course learned much from the 
conquests and marches of Alexander the Great. The 
geographers of Alexandria knew perfectly well that the 




CLAUDIUS PTOLEMY 

After a wood cut in Winsoy's History of America, 
facsimile of an engraving printed in ijS~ 



How the Greeks Failed 73 

world was round. A scholar of this period even figured 
out what the distance around it must be, and came very 
near to the correct figures. Another guessed that the 
earth revolved about the sun. 

The most celebrated geographer was Claudius Ptol- 
emy, who lived in Alexandria in Roman times. He 
studied the writings of all the earlier scholars and put 
the things which he thought most worthy of belief into 
a famous book. For centuries afterward this book was 
regarded as the best account of the world. But Ptolemy 
thought that the earth was the center of all things, and 
that the sun, stars, and planets all revolved about it. 
Because it was taught by Ptolemy, this false notion that 
the earth is the center of the universe is usually called 
the "Ptolemaic system." 

How much the men of later times relied on what the 
geographers of Alexandria taught is clearly shown by 
the fact that it was from them, and especially from 
Ptolemy, that Christopher Columbus and his friends took 
many of their ideas. 

In many other ways also the Greek learning and art 
of later days after Greece had been conquered influenced 
the Romans and nations of more recent times. So this 
"Hellenistic civilization," though in some respects not 
equal to the best ideas that Greece had once had, acted 
as a sort of bridge to carry Greek learning and refine- 
ment over to later centuries and peoples. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts. /. The Greeks wasted their strength 
in fighting each other. 2. After a long war Athens was beaten 
by Sparta, and then Sparta by Thebes, j. Philip, the crafty 
king of Macedonia, took advantage of the quarrels of the 



74 The Story oj Old Europe and Young America 

Greeks and brought all Greece under his control. 4. He then 
planned a great expedition against Persia, but was slain before 
he could carry it out. 5. PhiHp's son, Alexander the Great, 
was a man of remarkable bravery and ability. 6. With a 
Greek army he marched into the Persian Empire. 7. After 
winning many battles, Alexander conquered all southwestern 
Asia. 8. Into this vast territory he introduced Greek ideas. 
p. Alexander's work was cut off by his early death. 10. 
Alexander's empire soon fell to pieces, but the Greek cities 
could not regain their power. 11. Though Greece thus lost 
her independence, she gave to the world many great ideas. 

Study Questions, i. Why did the power of Greece decline ? 
2. What cities held the leadership in Greece? 3. Locate 
Macedonia. 4. How did PhiHp show that he was a crafty 
statesman? 5. Why was his army hard to defeat? 6. Why 
did he think that the Greeks, united, could conquer Persia? 
7. Give an account of the youth of Alexander the Great. 8. 
What countries now occupy the region he marched through 
and conquered? g. Why did many of the peoples of Asia not 
fight very hard against him? 10. What did Asia gain by being 
conquered by Alexander? 11. What were Alexander's chief 
faults? 12. What were the results of his death? 13. Why 
could the Greeks not regain their liberty? 14. If Greece was 
thus conquered by other countries, why was her history not 
a failure? 15. What were the chief wonders of Alexandria? 
16. Tell something about the geographers of Alexandria. 

Suggested Readings. Guerber, The Story of the Greeks, 
152-157, 163-173, 190-201, 217-282; White, Plutarch for Boys 
and Girls, 420-444; Tappan, The Story of the Greek People; 
Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men; Yonge, Young 
Folks' History of Greece. 



THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 

31. The Early Days of Rome. While the Greeks were 
thus wasting their powers, a city was growing strong in 
Italy which was one day to rule over the civilized world. 

Like Greece, Italy is a peninsula. On the map it 
looks much like a boot, with the large island of Sicily 



The Beginnings of Rome 



75 




A PHYSICAL MAP OF ITALY 



lying just opposite the toe, as if it were a football being 
kicked off into space. But unlike Greece, Italy has only a 
few good harbors, and so, although the blue Mediterranean 
lies on one side and the narrow Adriatic Sea on the other, 



76 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

her people in ancient times were not a race of sailors. 

Few countries in the whole world are more beautiful 
than "sunny Italy." On the north rise, like a gigantic 
wall, the snow-capped Alps, a natural barrier against 
fierce nations. At their foot stretches the great plain 
of the river Po. This plain has always been famous for 
its fertility, and to-day, with mile upon mile of vineyards 
and fruit trees, it is one of the world's garden spots. 

Down through the peninsula, like a sharp backbone, 
rise the steep summits of the Apennines, mountains wild 
and picturesque. But on either side along the coast are 
small yet wonderfully green plains and valleys through 
which, shining beneath the clear Italian sun, roll streams 
like the Arno and the Tiber. 

In the plain of the Tiber lived in ancient days a people 
called Latins, and the region itself was called Latium. 
The Latins were only a simple country people who knew 
little save how to till the soil and to fight bravely when 
attacked by their neighbors, who were often hostile. 

Among their numerous little towns one was built 
upon a hill beside the Tiber. Close at hand were six 
other low hills. At first only a country village, Rome 
was destined to outstrip all her neighbors and rivals 
and to grow into that mighty "Eternal City" which 
even yet stands majestically upon her "hilltops seven." 

•In some things the early Romans were like the Greeks. 
Their language, called Latin, resembled Greek in many 
ways. They also worshiped gods and goddesses, some 
of whom were very similar to those of Greece. These 
indeed were called by different names, but later, when 
the two nations came together, it was generally agreed 
that they were the very same deities. 



The Beginnings of Rome 



77 




ROMULUS AND REMUS 



After being protected by the she-wolf, (he children were found 

by a herdsman, whp took them home and brought 

them up as his own sons 



In other ways, however, the Romans turned out to be 
of entirely different stuff. As they rose to power they 
proved to be a 
stern, practical 
people who ex- 
celled in war and 
in government. 
For music, po- 
etry, and learn- 
ing they cared 
little until Greek 
fashions became 
popular among 
them. 

32. What the Roman Myths Tell. Yet the Romans 
also had their stories and myths of heroes. These could 
not indeed equal the beautiful fancies of the Greeks, but 
a great many of them told of the courage in war and virtue 
in peace of their ancestors. These stern but inspiring tales 
show clearly what kind of people the early Romans were. 

The Romans thought that their city had been founded 
by a hero named Romulus, after whom it was named. 
They loved to tell how he and his twin brother, Remus, 
were seized in infancy by their wicked uncle and set 
adrift in their cradle on the river Tiber. But the twins 
were found by a she-wolf who protected them as her own 
cubs. Thus they became fierce and strong beyond all 
men. Later, with the aid of brave comrades whom they 
gathered around them, they were able to punish their 
cruel uncle, and Romulus built upon one of the seven 
famous hills a village which men said was the beginning 
of the "Eternal City." 



78 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



According to the myths, Romulus was the first king 
of Rome. Six others followed, but the last, Tarquin the 
Proud, was so haughty and cruel that the Romans drove 
him out and vowed they would have no more kings. 
Every year after that time the people came together in 
their assembly and elected two officers, called "consuls," 




From an old print 



HORATIUS DEFENDS THE BRIDGE 



It is recorded that the state raised a statue to Horalius and gave him, as a reward for 
his heroism, a^ much land as he could plow around in a day 

who ruled them with the advice of a body of wise and 
honorable men called the "senate." Thus Rome became 
a "republic," as we say, but in times of great danger 
those officers were set aside and all power given to some 
strong soldier, called a "dictator." He might rule for 
six months, but never longer, lest he should wish to 
become a true king like Tarquin. 



The Beginnings of Rome 79 

The Roman myths told how the wicked Tarquin 
family had tried to reconquer Rome. They fled to 
powerful neighboring cities and persuaded their rulers 
to send strong armies to make the Romans take them 
back as kings. But against great odds the Romans 
bravely defended their liberty. Once it was said the 
invaders almost took the city by surprise. But a sturdy 
captain named Horatius took his stand on the narrow 
bridge which crossed the Tiber, and with his good sword 
held it against the whole army while the Romans broke 
it down behind him. Then he plunged into the swift 
stream and, though wounded, swam safely across. 

Another famous story tells how once, when the Roman 
army had been defeated and surrounded by its enemies, 
all seemed lost. In despair the people turned to a brave 
but poor old soldier named Cincinnatus as the one man 
who might save the state. It was voted that he should 
be dictator. 

When the messengers of the senate went to inform 
him they found him plowing on his little farm across the 
Tiber. At their command he left the plow and became 
ruler of Rome. Ordering every man who was able to 
bear arms to follow him, he marched forth and by a skill- 
fully planned night attack not only freed the Roman 
army but overthrew and subdued the enemy. Then he 
returned, laid down his power, and went back to his plow 
as if nothing had happened. 

Still a third tale is that of Coriolanus, a brave Roman 
general who had been exiled because he tried to oppress 
the poor. In anger he went over to the enemies of Rome, 
and at the head of one of their armies soon had the city 
at his mercy. Though the foremost men of Rome begged 



8o The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Coriolanus to spare his own fatherland, he sternly refused. 
But when his mother, his wife, and his children entreated 
him with tears he could not withstand their prayer. 
Knowing that he must pay for his tenderness with his 
Hfe, he led his army back to their own country. 

Though these and other similar tales are of course 
not entirely true, they do help us to see how it was that 
the Romans gradually conquered their neighbors and 
made Rome the strongest city in Italy. 

33. The Plebeians Struggle for Their Rights. But 
before Rome could conquer other nations she had to 
learn how to rule herself. A fierce struggle began between 
the rich and noble citizens, the "patricians" as they were 
called, and the poor "plebeians" or "plebs." The patri- 
cians thought that they alone should have all the 
power. The poor who could not pay their debts were 
often sold into slavery. At first the plebeians were not 
allowed to vote or to hold office. 

Again and again the Forum, as the central square of 
the city was called, was the scene of angry disturbance 
by the plebs. But though the patricians sometimes 
pretended to give in, yet the people could not obtain 
their full rights. 

At last the poor plebeians could stand it no longer. 
So one day, when they had been summoned to join the 
army, they all marched away to a hill, about three miles 
from Rome, called the "Sacred Mount." They declared 
that if they could not have justice they never would 
return, but would found there a city of their own. 

The patricians could see their white tents on the hill- 
side and knew that they meant what they said. So they 
agreed that if the plebs would return they might choose 



The Beginnings of Rome 8i 

officers from among themselves, called "tribunes," who 
should have the power to protect them from wrong. 
Thinking that now at last all would be well, the plebs 
yielded and trudged back to Rome. 

Thereafter the plebs every year chose their tribunes. 
If any unjust law was proposed, or any officer undertook 
to do anything wrong to plebeians, a tribune stepped 
forward and, raising his hand, said solemnly in Latin, 
"Veto," which means, "I forbid." Then the action had 
to be given up. 

The right of the people to have tribunes or protectors 
was a great gain, but still things did not go well. One 
trouble was that the laws of Rome had not been put in 
writing, and the people seldom knew what they were. 
Since all the officers of the city were patricians, they 
always decided that the laws were in favor of their class, 
and no one could gainsay them. 

After a long struggle it was finally agreed that ten 
men should be named to write down the laws. Mean- 
while, the ten men "were to have full power over the city, 
and all the regular officers, including the consuls and 
tribunes, were to be suspended. 

After many months the laws were at last agreed upon. 
Engraved upon twelve tablets, they were set up in the 
Forum so that all men might see them. Stern and cruel 
old laws they were, as we should think, but it was at 
least a great advantage that everybody might learn them. 

But when "the Ten " had written down the laws they 
would not give up their power. Instead, they began to 
rule cruelly, and one of them especially, a proud patrician 
named Appius Claudius, hired rough soldiers to frighten 
people, and acted like a tyrant. Finally, after a wicked 



82 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



deed by Appius Claudius, there was a terrible riot in the 
Forum. The people rose in fury and with loud calls for 
their tribunes threw stones and mud at the cruel ruler. 
Then the plebeians again marched away to the Sacred 
Hill, vowing never to return. 

Only, after "the Ten" had been put to death and 
their tribunes given back were the people willing again 
to be Romans. 

34. The Gauls Take Rome. A people who are thus 
quarreling among themselves can scarcely hope to be 
successful against outside enemies. While all this was 
going on, the Romans had hardly been able to hold their 
own in their continual wars with their neighbors. At 
last came a terrible disaster. 

A fierce, wild people from the north, called the Gauls, 

suddenly attacked Rome. 
Outlandish in speech and 
dress and huge in stature, 
these savage warriors spread 
terror throughout Italy. 
They defeated the Roman 
army, destroyed the city, 
and massacred all who could 
not escape. 

According to stories later 
told in Rome, however, the 
Gauls could not capture the 
Capitol, which was held by 
some brave Roman soldiers. 
Once they nearly succeeded. 
A daring messenger had managed to climb up the steep 
side of the Capitoline Hill to bring news to the garrison. 




SAVAGE GAULS AND THEIR WEAPONS 

To give themselves a more frightful appear- 
ance the Gauls dyed their blond 
hair a flaming red 



The Beginnings of Rome 83 

The Gauls saw his footprints and planned to take the 
garrison by surprise. At dead of night they stealthily 
made their way up the steep path, each man, by means 
of his weapons, helping to draw up the one following. 

No one saw them. But just as they were near the 
top, the sacred geese which were kept in the temple of 
Juno cackled. A strong Roman captain, named Marcus 
Manlius, was awakened just in time. He rushed to the 
head of the path, slew a huge Gaul who was scrambling 
up, and hurled another down headlong upon his com- 
rades. Other Romans sprang to his aid, and thus "the 
geese saved Rome." 

Finally the Gauls, who, though fierce and impetuous 
in attack, lacked patience, grew tired of the siege. In 
return for a large sum of gold they agreed to go home. 
But it is said that when the Romans objected to the 
way in which the tribute was being weighed, the chief 
of the Gauls roughly threw his sword into the scales, 
exclaiming, "Woe to the conquered!" So the Romans 
had to pay down still more gold to counterbalance the 
heavy Gallic sword. 

Thus the Romans got back the ruins of their city. A 
people less stout-hearted might have been so discouraged 
that they could not recover. These brave Italians, how- 
ever, soon rebuilt their homes. 

Yet the old quarrel between patricians and plebeians 
immediately broke out again. Once more there were 
bitter struggles and for a time almost all goverment 
came to an end. Finally, however, it was decided that 
all Romans should be practically equal. Henceforth 
there was no difference between patricians and ple- 
beians save in name. 



84 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Thus united, Rome once more became strong, and 
as a result of many hard battles conquered the rest of 
Italy. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. Like Greece, Italy is a peninsula, 
but without many good harbors. 2. At first Rome was only a 
little village on the river Tiber in the district called Latium. 
3. The early Romans resembled the Greeks in many ways, 
but were much more stem and practical. 4. Their myths 
were nearly all about war and about brave deeds, like those 
of Horatius and Cincinnatus. 5. The myths tell how the 
Romans drove out their kings and set up a republic. 6. In 
early Rome there were fierce quarrels between the noble 
patricians and the poor plebeians. 7. The plebeians finally 
forced the patricians to give them full rights. 8. While the 
quarrels were going on, the savage Gauls captured and de- 
stroyed Rome. g. After they withdrew, Rome became stronger 
than ever. 

Study Questions, i. How does Italy resemble Greece? 
2. What differences do you see between Italy and Greece? 
J. Locate Latium. 4. In what ways did the early Romans 
resemble the Greeks? 5. What do the myths and stories of 
the Romans show about their character? 6. Tell the story of 
Romulus and Remus; of Horatius; of Cincinnatus; of Coriolanus. 
7. How was Rome governed? 8. Why did the patricians and 
the plebeians quarrel? p. How did the plebeians compel the 
patricians to grant them their rights? 10. What concessions 
did the patricians make? 11. Who were the Gauls? 12. 
How was it that they could capture Rome? ij. Tell the 
story of their attack on the Capitol as if you were a Gaul who 
took part. 14. Why w^ere the Gauls willing to leave Rome? 
Ij. Why was Rome stronger than ever after the departure 
of the Gauls? 

Suggested Readings. Tappan, The Story of the Roman 
People, 1-72; Yonge, Y'oung Folks' History of Rome, 13- 
150; Harding, The City of the Seven Hills, 7-124; Guerber, 
The Story of the Romans; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men 
of Rome. 



What Rome Gained by Conquest ■ 85 

WHAT ROME GAINED BY CONQUEST 

35. Hannibal Threatens Rome. Rome, like Greece, 
had a great enemy. While she was growing strong in 
Italy, a rival city, Carthage, was prospering in northern 
Africa. 

Carthage stood only a few miles from the modern 
city of Tunis. We sometimes think of northern Africa 
to-day as a land of desert and mountains, inhabited only 
by ferocious Moors, but in ancient times it contained 
many splendid cities which had been founded by the 
Phoenicians and the Greeks. 

Of these Carthage was the chief. Her first settlers 
had been Phoenicians, who brought with them their 
love of trade and of the sea. The white sails of Car- 
thaginian merchant ships were seen everywhere on the 
Mediterranean, and her numerous colonies brought her 
a great commerce. Carthage is said to have had a million 
inhabitants, and was famous for her wealth and luxury. 

Between Carthage and Rome rolled the blue waves 
of the Mediterranean. But midway lay the valuable 
island of Sicily, and over this the two cities were drawn 
into conflict. 

Was the leader of the world to be a city of Europe or 
of Africa? The wealth of Carthage, and her great fleet 
of ships, gave her an advantage over Rome. She had 
also very skillful generals and statesmen. But her people 
were not such good soldiers as the stern Romans. For her 
armies she had to rely largely on hired troops and the 
forces of subject peoples, while in those days every Roman 
citizen was a stout soldier, wilHng, if need be, to pour out 
his blood for his fatherland. 
7 




HANNIBAL 



86 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

In the first war the Romans were successful and drove 
the Carthaginians out of Sicily. But the latter went 

^ only to Spain, and began to take 

possession of that country. Soon war 
broke out again. 

The leader of the Carthaginian 
forces was then the great general 
Hannibal. This famous man was one 
of Rome's most bitter enemies, for 
when still a small boy his father had 
made him swear a solemn oath that 
he would wage unceasing war upon 
the Italian city, the great foe of his 
countr3^ Throughout his long life 
^//..on-gra76L7^«.vaa-o«a/ Hannibal never forgot. 

Museum, Naples j^ g^^-^^ ^^ gathered an- army 

made up of all the various peoples over whom Carthage 
ruled. Spaniards, Gauls, and Africans filled his ranks, 
and there was a body of splendid African cavalry, the 
best horsemen in the world. But most curious of all 
was the long line of war elephants which he took with 
him, for the Carthaginians employed these huge beasts 
to trample down their foes. 

From Spain across Gaul, as France was then called, 
and over the mountains into Italy Hannibal's army made 
its way. It was a wonderful march, for there were no 
roads, and the country was almost a wilderness. Great 
rivers had to be crossed, savage tribes encountered, and 
finally the mighty snow-crowned Alps towered before them. 

But inspired by their great leader they struggled on. 
As they climbed the steep mountain passes, urging along 
the unwieldy elephants, they were beaten by fierce 



What Rome Gained by Conquest 



87 



tempests and the savage mountaineers rolled great rocks 
down the steep slopes upon them. It seemed that they 
must retreat or perish. At last, however, although suffer- 
ing great losses, the Carthaginians reached the summit 
and looked down upon Italy, with its rich fields and 
great cities. 

Rome gathered her armies to meet them, but though 
her soldiers were 



brave, she had no 
general to match 
Hannibal. He 
planned so clev- 
erly that in every 
encounter the 
Romans had lit- 
tle or no chance 
of success. 

His greatest 
victory was at the 
battle of Cannae. 
To avenge former 
terrible defeats 
the Romans 
gathered an im- 
mense army of 
eighty-six thou- 
sand men and ad- 
vanced to crush 
the invader. 
Hannibal had 




Hannibal's army crossing the alps 

The march from Spain to Italy across rivers ar, 

through unknoivn mountain passes, 

took five months 



only fifty thousand, but he trusted to his skill. He chose 
for the battlefield a plain where his magnificent horsemen 



88 The Story oj Old Europe and Young America 

could be used to advantage. Then he drew up his foot- 
men somewhat in the form of a crescent. In the center 
Hannibal's line was rather thin, but on each flank he 
formed his best infantry in heavy masses. 

The brave Romans advanced impetuously and easily 
drove back the center of the Carthaginian line. But sud- 
denly they were attacked from both sides by Hannibal's 
veterans, and at the same time his horsemen, scattering 
the Roman cavalry, swooped around and fell upon their 
rear. Seventy thousand Romans were left dead or 
wounded on the field. It is said Hannibal sent to Carthage 
a peck of rings of the Roman nobles slain in the battle. 

But to capture the city of Rome was too great a task 
even for Hannibal, unless he should receive reenforce- 
ments. Carthage, therefore, sent another army, under 
Hannibal's brother, to aid him, but the Romans fell upon 
it and destroyed it before it could reach him. The first 
news Hannibal had of the defeat was when his brother's 
head was hurled into his camp by a Roman soldier. 

Encouraged by this success, the Romans continued 
the struggle and finally ' ' carried the war into Africa ' ' by 
sending a Roman army directly against Carthage. In 
spite of all his victories, Hannibal must now return to 
protect his own city. In the battle of Zama he was at 
last beaten, and Carthage surrendered. (202 B.C.) 

Hard indeed were the terms that Rome imposed. Carth- 
age must give up her fleet, pay a great sum of money, and 
give annual tribute to Rome. But even this did not sat- 
isfy the Romans. When later the prosperity of Carthage 
began to revive they attacked her again, and destroyed 
her absolutely. Even the place where Carthage had stood 
was sown with salt so that nothing might grow there. 



What Rome Gained by Conquest 



89 




It was a terrible fate for one of the most splendid 
cities of the world, but mighty Rome would not endure 
a rival. 

36. Romans 
Conquer All Na- 
tions. When Car- 
thage had been 
beaten, no other 
nation could suc- 
cessfully resist 
Rome. She soon 
sent her armies 
against Macedonia, 
against the Greek 
cities, and against 
the kingdoms of 
Asia which had 
grown out of the 
empire of Alexander the Great. There were many wars, 
but the stout Roman soldiers were always victorious, and 
one after another all the peoples around the Mediter- 
ranean Sea fell under Roman rule. 

The Roman method of fighting was different from the 
Greek. The Romans used horsemen and light-armed 
soldiers with arrows and slings, but their main reliance 
was upon bodies of foot soldiers called "legions." Each 
soldier of a legion was armed with a heavy javelin or 
spear intended to be thrown, and a short but keen-edged 
sword. He had a helmet, breastplate, and shield. The 
legions were not drawn up in heavy masses like the 
Greeks, but the soldiers took their stand in separate 
ranks with open spaces between. Thus the men could 



AFTER THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE 

Romans plotving the ground where Che 
city had stood 



QO 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




From Trojan's Column 
TYPES OF ROMAN SOLDIERS 

(/) A legionary, (2) a stinger, (3) a light-armed soldier 



move backward and forward easily, and so well drilled 
were the Roman soldiers that even in the heat of battle 

each man knew 
just what to do. 
Every legion car- 
ried as a standard 
a bronze figure of 
an eagle, and if 
the ranks were 
broken the sol- 
diers rallied about 
this symbol. Sel- 
dom indeed could 
the enemy succeed in capturing an eagle. 

When the legions approached the ene'my the soldiers 
in the first line threw their javelins and then, drawing 
their swords, charged. If the foe was not then broken, 
the other ranks charged after the first. 

The Romans owed success also to their good generals. 
In fighting the Macedonians, with their close ranks and 
long spears, the Roman commanders planned matters so 
skillfully that the battles took place in woods or on rough 
ground. Thus the enemy was thrown into disorder and 
easily defeated. 

37. Conquest Does Not Make Rome Better. Nations 
that conquer their enemies in war are not always the 
happiest. The Romans had been a simple country people. 
Each man had had his little farm. Here he raised his 
own crops and lived in humble contentment with his wife 
and children. Few were rich and none were very poor. 
But as they subjugated other people the Romans became 
proud and cruel. Many among them gained great wealth 



What Rome Gained by Conquest 



91 




A ROMAN LEGION ON THE MARCH 

In each legion were the younger men forming the first line of 
battle, then the older men, and lastly the veterans. Besides 
these were the light-armed troops and horsemen 



and established huge estates or plantations where all the 
work was done by slaves, often captives taken in war. 

There came to 
be thousands up- 
on thousands of 
these slaves in 
Italy. Many of 
them were indeed 
rough barbarians, 
only useful to till 
the fields, but 
others were cul- 
tured Greeks, or 
people from Asia who knew more than their Roman 
masters. The field slaves had little to eat or wear, 
and were very harshly treated. So it is no wonder that 
there was always danger of a dreadful outbreak of those 
poor creatures. But many of the slaves lived in the 

houses of the rich 
Romans and were 
regarded more 
like the servants 
of our own time. 

A rich Roman 
generally had not 
merely a splendid 
house or palace 
in the city, but 
a beautiful resi- 
dence on his estate 
called a "villa." This was adorned with fountains, 
statues, and paintings copied after those of the Greeks, 




From an old print 
A ROMAN FEAST IN THE LATER DAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



92 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



and provided with every luxury then known. Here the 
fortunate Roman and his family too often Hved a life 
of idle pleasure, and with wine and music entertained 
their friends at magnificent feasts which went on far 
into the night. 

No wonder wealthy men and women did not become 
stronger or better! 

But while some Romans thus became rich, others grew 
poor. Since so much grain was raised on the great farms 
of the nobles, the man who had only a little farm could 
not get a good price for what he had to sell. Sometimes, 
too, his land was seized by a rich neighbor and he could 
not get it back. Thus many men had no occupation, and 
went to the city of Rome itself, where they became 
"loafers," ready for any mischief or violence. Soon the 

city was obliged to 

'^ ""^ give them food, and 

shiploads of grain were 

brought from Egypt 

or northern Africa for 

distribution. But the 

mob was seldom satis - 

,. I fied, and there was 

a|1| always danger that 

they would rise and do 

some dreadful thing. 

Some wise Romans 
saw how bad all this 
was. Foremost among 
them were two brave 
young men named Gracchus (the Gracchi) . The Gracchi 
were not satisfied simply to complain that things were 




Ideal portraits 

THE GRACCHI 

Once when asked to show her jewels, Cornelia, the 

mother of the Gracchi presented her sons, 

saying, "These are my jewels" 



What Rome Gained by Conquest 93 

going wrong, but tried to take some of the land from 
the rich and give it again to the poorer people. But as 
soon as such a thing was spoken of all the wealthy- 
Romans became their bitter enemies, and bribed people 
to attack them. 

Feeling sure that they were in the right, the Gracchi 
tried to carry their measures through in violent ways. 
As a result there were terrible riots, and both young men 
were slain. We remember the Gracchi with gratitude 
because they were brave and tried to help the poor. 
But though they saw what Rome should do, they did 
not know how it should be done. After their death 
matters became worse than ever. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. The great enemy of Rome was 
Carthage, a city in northern Africa. 2. To decide which 
should be the leading city of the world, Rome and Carthage 
engaged in a series of wars. j. The great Carthaginian 
general, Hannibal, invaded Italy and defeated the Romans in 
many battles. 4. Finally Carthage was beaten and destroyed. 
5. Rome then conquered Macedonia, Greece, and all the 
other countries around the Mediterranean Sea. 6. Because 
of their victories the Romans became proud and cruel. 7. 
Some of them became very rich, and had thousands of slaves. 
8. The rest grew poor and becaine idlers in the city of Rome. 
p. Two brave young men called the Gracchi tried to have the 
land divided more equally, but failed, and lost their lives. 

Study Questions, i. Locate Carthage. 2. Why did Rome 
and Carthage quarrel? j. What advantages did Carthage 
have over Rome? 4. In what ways was Rome stronger? 5. 
Tell the story of Hannibal's march as if you yourself had been 
a soldier in his army. 6. Why did Hannibal fail? 7. Why 
did Rome finally destroy the city of Carthage? 8. Why was 
it comparatively easy for Rome to conquer Greece? g. Tell 
how the Roman armies fought. 10. Why did their victories 



94 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



not make the Romans happy? ii. Describe how the wealthy 
Romans Hved. 12. Why did the poor give up their farms? 
I J. Why do you think the poor were not content in Rome? 
14. Why did the Gracchi fail in their reforms? 15. Why do 
people remember the Gracchi? 16. What were the results of 
their work? 

Suggested Readings. Tappan, The Story oj the Roman 
People, 72-122; Kaufman, Our Young Folks' Plutarch, 330-343; 
Harding, The City of the Seven Hills, 125-165; Yonge, Young 
Folks' History of Rome, 151-202 ; Lang, The Red Book of Heroes, 
43-94; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; Guerber, 
The Story of the Romans. 



HOW THE ROMAN REPUBLIC BECAME 
THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

38. Caesar Appears. Thus the rich and the poor were 
once more struggling with each other almost as in the 
old days of the patricians and plebeians. First one party, 
then the other prevailed, and blood often flowed in the 
streets of Rome. Since the people of Rome themselves 
had changed, things could no longer 
go on in the old way. Unless able 
leaders who knew how to make wise 
reforms came forward, it seemed that 
Rome, after all her conquests, must 
soon be ruined. 

Among the leaders at that time 
were Pompey, a famous general who 
had won many victories over distant 
nations in Asia, and Crassus, noted 
for his immense wealth. But soon a 
younger man, named Julius Caesar, 
began to be spoken of. Tall and erect, with hooked 
nose and piercing glance, this remarkable person began 




POMPEY THE GREAT 

After the bust in Ike Spada 
Palace, Rome 



How the Roman Republic became the Roman Empire 95 



to show how clearly he could think and with what power 
he could act. The people eagerly supported him because 
he seemed to be their friend and cham- 
pion, just as the Gracchi had been. 

At first Pompey, Crassus, and Cae- 
sar were friends. They made a se- 
cret agreement that they would help 
each other to be elected to offices and 
to control everything. Since there 
were three of them, they came to be 
called the "triumvirate." No one 
could oppose them successfully, for 
Pompey had fame, Crassus money, 
and Caesar brains. 

Thus in turn they had themselves 
chosen as consuls, and when their year 
of office was up they went forth, ac- 
cording to the custom, as governors of 
wealthy provinces over which Rome 
ruled. Caesar chose to be governor of Gaul, the Roman 
name for the country we call France. 

39. Caesar Conquers Gaul and Quarrels with Pompey. 
In Gaul Caesar did wonderful things. At that time this 
beautiful country was still almost a wilderness, inhabited 
by barbarous tribes always at war. The Romans as yet 
controlled only a little of the southern part. 

From the beginning Caesar had to face unusual dan- 
gers. To get the better of their neighbors one of the 
Gallic tribes called to their aid the fierce Germans who 
lived in the wild regions beyond the Rhine. Under the 
lead of a chief called Ariovistus an immense number of 
these barbarians crossed over into Gaul and threatened 




JULIUS CAESAR 



Afier the bust in the British 
Museum 



96 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

to overrun the whole country. In terror the Gauls now 
appealed to Caesar for protection. But such stories of 
the huge size and great courage of the Germans were 
spread abroad that even the Roman soldiers were dis- 
turbed, and many of the camp followers were ready to 
flee in terror to Italy. 

Caesar, however, was not afraid. Calling his officers 
together, he made a brave speech by which he restored 
their courage. Then the Roman army marched against 
the Germans. In a terrible battle the barbarians were 
defeated and driven out of Gaul. 

Later, in order to terrify the Germans still further, 
Caesar caused his engineers to build a bridge across the 
Rhine. The task of spanning this great stream with no 
building material but hastily felled logs was skillfully 
accomplished, and then Caesar led his army over in 
triumph. After showing his power, he returned safely. 

Caesar had made up his mind that all of Gaul should 
come under the sway of Rome. One tribe after another 
was overthrown by his invincible legions, which won 
many battles against overwhelming numbers of brave but 
undisciplined Gauls. The whole country finally seemed 
to be subdued. 

But when he did not expect it, the tribes rose suddenly 
against Caesar. Up to this time the Gauls had seldom 
been able to unite. Now, however, a great conspiracy was 
formed by a young and able chief named Vercingetorix. 
Though no doubt a barbarian, Vercingetorix was a patriot 
ready to die to save his country from slavery to Rome. 

Never was Caesar in such danger. A great defeat by 
Vercingetorix seemed to sweep away the result of all his 
conquests. But the Roman commander now showed his 



How the Roman Republic became the Roman Empire 97 

genius. Rallying his army, he overthrew the untrained 
Gallic warriors and forced their brave leader to take refuge 
in his stronghold of Alesia. 

Here Vercingetorix thought he could hold out. But 
Caesar, with the aid of his skillful engineers, built fortifica- 
tions entirely around Alesia. An army of Gauls which 
came to relieve the fortress was beaten, and after a long 
siege Vercingetorix and his warriors had to surrender. 

The unfortunate chief was taken to Rome, paraded 
through the streets, and finally executed. Yet to this 
day his memory is honored by the French people as that 
of a brave man who tried to save his country. 

Besides subduing Gaul, Caesar undertook other enter- 
prises. During the conflicts the Gallic tribes received aid 
from the people of a distant country which the Romans 
called Britannia. It was England, then an almost un- 
known land inhabited by a race called Britons. 

The Britons were kinsfolk of the Gauls. But they 
were more barbarous. Great influence was held among 
them by their priests, called Druids. Groves of oak 
trees were their chosen retreats, and they paid special 
veneration to the plant called mistletoe. The Druids 
carried on the rites of a dark and gloomy religion whose 
gods they tried to appease by human sacrifice. 

Caesar determined to teach the Britons that even the 
sea could not save them from the power of Rome. When 
the ships of Caesar came within sight of the white cliffs 
of Britannia, he found the Britons drawn up to defend 
their land. They had spears and darts, and the skins of 
many of them were tattooed a blue color. Some of the 
chiefs rode in war chariots having sharp blades attached 
to the wheels so that thev could cut down their foes. 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




From an old print after painting by Blaky 
CAESAR AND HIS MEN LANDING IN BRITAIN 



At first the Romans could not land because of the 
shower of darts and stones rained upon them. But 

finally a brave 
soldier who car- 
ried one of the 
standards, call- 
ing out to the 
men to follow or 
they would lose 
their eagle, 
jumped into the 
shallow water 
and waded for- 
ward. Then all 
rushed after 
him, and though 
the Britons resisted stoutly, they were at last defeated. 
Caesar made two expeditions to Britannia, but since 
it was so far away he did not try to hold it permanently. 
All Gaul, however, was brought by him under the rule of 
Rome. By his marches and battles he showed himself 
one of the greatest generals Rome had ever produced. 
But meanwhile things were changing at home. Crassus 
was now dead, and Pompey had become Caesar's rival 
and enemy. He and many of the noble and wealthy 
Romans feared lest, now that Caesar had conquered Gaul, 
he would make himself absolute master of Rome also. 
Among the mob, however, many favored Caesar. He had 
skillfully won them to his side by giving them bribes and 
having them entertained by games. Little did such men 
care whether Rome was ruled in the old way by its senate 
or by Caesar alone. 



How the Roman Republic became the Roman Empire 99 

40. CaesarMakesHimself Master of Rome. Caesar's 
enemies prepared to punish him, but Caesar was too quick. 
At the head of his faithful soldiers he marched into Italy 
and reached a little stream called the Rubicon. Here for 
a moment he hesitated. To cross the Rubicon meant 
to declare a war which would mean for him either mighty 
power or death. Should he take the risk? 

"The die is cast," he said, and led his soldiers across. 

So quickly did he come that Pompey and his followers 
could not get ready to withstand him. They fled to 
Greece, and Caesar became master of Rome. 

But his power was not yet sure. All who loved the 
old customs of Rome were his foes. Many went to join 
Pompey, and that famous soldier soon had a great army, 
far larger than Caesar could muster. But Caesar did not 
fear, for he trusted to his own skill and to the valor of his 
veteran soldiers. He soon crossed to Greece and met 
Pompey in a great battle. Pompey at first had the 
advantage, but in the end Caesar was completely victo- 
rious.. The army of his enemies was scattered and Pom- 
pey, fleeing for safety, was slain. 

Even yet Caesar was not safe, for his enemies gathered 
other armies to overthrow him. More battles were 
fought, but the great leader was always victorious. Once 
he won so quickly that he sent to Rome merely the words, 
"I came, I saw, I conquered." 

One man, Julius Caesar, was now master of the whole 
civilized world. 

41. The Death of Caesar. How would Caesar use 
the power he had thus gained ? In many ways he proved 
a wise ruler, and though he crushed his foes he had 
good plans to improve conditions. But the man who 



lOO 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



overthrows the Hberty of his country always has enemies. 
Among the prominent men of Rome a plot was formed 
to slay Caesar. Some w^ho took part in it were merely 
jealous or angry at some sHght, but others, like Brutus, 
believed that Caesar was a tyrant and that his death 
would make Rome free as it had been in the good old days 
after the Tarquins were driven out. The conspirators 




From a painting by G. Rochegrosse 



THE DEATH OF CAESAR 

On the lolh of March, 44 B.C. perished the greatest of the Romans 

planned to stab Caesar at a great meeting soon to be held 
by the senate. It is said that the victim was warned, 
but that he would not give heed. 

At last the day came. In all its state the senate was 
assembled, and Caesar entered the hall. Now the con- 
spirators, as if by chance, came around him. One of 
them handed him a paper, and as he did so suddenly 
grasped Caesar by the robe. Then the plotters drew 



How the Roman Republic became the Roman Empire loi 



from beneath their cloaks long, gleaming daggers, and 
stabbed Caesar again and again. Thus wretchedly died 
this great conqueror. 

But Rome was not free. The death of Caesar meant 
merely that somebody else would take his place. The 
Roman people had forgotten how to govern themselves. 

42. Caesar Augustus Rules. Brutus and the other 
conspirators expected that the people would applaud 
what they had done. But the Romans did not do so. 
When Caesar was buried, his friend Mark Antony made 
a powerful speech, telling 
what a great man Caesar 
was and how much he had 
done for the people. As 
they listened to his words 
the mob became so angry that they 
threatened the lives of Brutus and 
his supporters, and drove them from 
the city. 

Mark Antony and the young 
nephew of Caesar then took the lead 
They followed the conspirators with 
an army, defeated and slew them 
in a battle in Greece, and thus be- 
came rulers of the Roman world. 
It was agreed that Antony should 
rule all the eastern part and Caesai 's 
nephew, the western. They could 
not live long in peace, however, but 

. CAESAR AUGUSTUS 

soon fought each other, just as After a slalue in the Vatican, Rome 

Caesar and Pompey had done before. Antony lost his 
life, and then young Caesar was supreme. 




I02 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Caesar Augustus, as he was called, was a tall, fine 
looking man who seemed bom to be a ruler. He proved 
both wise and . clever. Instead of taking all the state 
of a king, Augustus allowed the Romans to have their 
assemblies and play at electing consuls just as in the old 
days, but he himself took the title of emperor and really 
had all the power. From this time on Rome always had 
an emperor at its head. The Roman Republic became 
the Roman Empire. (31 B.C.) 

The Roman Empire started well. Augustus was firm 
but wise. Though he had risen by violence he did not 
like war, and kept the empire peaceful. He thought it 
best to beautify and improve Rome by new squares and 
buildings, and to encourage great writers and artists. 
So at the end of his reign he justly boasted that "he 
found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble." 

Well indeed would it have been if all the emperors or 
"Caesars" who came after had followed his example. 
But some loved bloodshed; others cared only to eat and 
drink and live in luxury. So people often looked back 
to the "Age of Augustus" as the happiest and greatest 
time Rome ever had. 

43. What the Roman Empire Was. All the civilized 
world had been conquered by Rome and for four hundred 
years was ruled by Roman emperors. From the distant 
Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Asia to the surging waves 
of the Atlantic Ocean in the west; from the dark forests 
of Germany on the north to the sands of the Sahara 
in Africa were seen Roman officials in their white "togas," 
or robes of state, and stern-faced Roman soldiers with 
sword and shield. Each country was now but a Roman 
province, ruled by a governor sent from Rome. The 




THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTE 




Copyyi^^ht , iqtj, by Rand McAu/ly KSf Co. 



How the Roman Republic became the Roman Empire 103 



cultured Greek, the tattooed Briton, the dark-skinned 
Moor, and the savage Gaul must all alike bow to the will 
of Caesar, and even worship his image. 

Yet it was a good thing for them to be conquered by 
Rome. They could now no longer fight and plunder 
each other, but must live in peace and apply themselves 
to industry. Everywhere throughout the empire might 
be seen splendid cities, with fine buildings, beautiful pub- 
lic squares, and noble theaters. Huge stone aqueducts 
■ often brought to such towns a supply of clear water from 
a distance of many miles. Between the cities lay smiling 
fields and green vineyards, cultivated in peaceful security, 
while through the country stretched those wonderful 
white roads for which the Romans were famous. All of 
these led finally to Rome itself, the capital of the world. 

As time went on, the people of many provinces of the 
empire became like the Romans. They learned to speak 
the Latin language ; they dressed in Roman costume ; they 
sent their chil- 






'^"YTn 



dren to Roman 
schools. Thus, 
after a while, if a 
person had trav- 
eled in Spain, in 
Gaul, or even in 
northern Africa 
he would have 
seen little that 
was different 
from Italy itself. 

Not everything in the empire was good by any means. 
Thousands of poor slaves still groaned at hard labor that 




ROMAN BRIDGE AND AQUEDUCT NEAR NIMES, FRANCE 

This structure, known as the Pont du Card bridge, is 880 feet 

long and 160 feet high. One can still walk through 

the water channel, which is at the very top 



I04 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

a few wealthy Romans might enjoy every luxury in their 
villas. Harsh Roman governors sometimes played the 
tyrant over the people in distant provinces, and plundered 
them of their goods. Heavy taxes had to be paid that 
some Caesar might have his great court, and the mob at 
Rome be fed and amused. 

Yet, all things considered, the world as a whole was 
a much better place to live in during the days when the 
Roman Empire was strong than it had ever been before. 
At least, there was peace and security. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. The Roman people could no longer 
manage their affairs in the old ways. 2. The greatest leaders 
of that time were Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar, j. 
Caesar was the ablest, and won the favor of the people. 4. 
Sent to govern Gaul, Caesar conquered all that country and 
visited Britain. 5. Pompey and other wealthy Romans 
feared Caesar, and tried to punish him. 6. Caesar declared 
war upon them, crushed Pompey, and made himself master of 
Rome. 7. Before he could improve matters he was stabbed 
by Brutus and other men who had plotted against him. 8. 
After further struggles, Caesar's nephew, called Caesar 
Augustus, became master, p. He was a wise and peaceful 
ruler. 10. From this time on Rome was always ruled by an 
emperor. 11. The world now had peace, and in many ways 
was better off than ever before. 

Study Questions, i. Why did Rome need leaders wiser 
than the Gracchi? 2. Who were the chief inen of this period 
and what did each have which made him a leader? j. What 
was the purpose of the first "triumvirate"? 4. What 
difficulties did Caesar meet in Gaul? 5. Why was he so suc- 
cessful? 6. Tell the story of Caesar's expedition to Britain. 
7. Why did Pompey now fear Caesar? 8. What people in 
Rome favored Caesar? q. Why did Caesar invade Italy so 
quickly? 10. Why did many good men take the side of 
Pompey? 11. What was the result of Caesar's victories over 
Pompey and his supporters? 12. Why did Brutus wish to slay 



How the Romans Lived 105 

Caesar, when he was planning to improve matters? 13. Tell 
the story of Caesar's death as if you had been a spectator in the 
Senate House. 14. What were the results of Caesar's death? 
15. How did Augustus become ruler of Rome ? 16. Prove that 
Augustus was a wise ruler. 17. How was the government 
of Rome changed after his time? 18. What were some of the 
things you would have seen had you traveled through the 
Roman Empire? ig. How were many of the people who lived 
in the empire changed? 20. What were some of the bad 
things in the empire? 

Suggested Readings. Tappan, The Story of the Roman 
People, 123-181; Kaufman, Our Young Folks' Plutarch, 406- 
418; Gould, The Children's Plutarch, 107-134; Harding, 1 The 
City of the Seven Hills, 184-21 1 ; Yonge, Young Folks' History of 
Rome, 229-284; Clarke, The Story of Caesar; Haaren and Poland, 
Famous Men of Rome; Guerber, The Story of the Romans. 

HOW THE ROMANS LIVED 

44. How the City of Rome Looked. Majestic indeed 
was the great city which had conquered the world. In 
the center, thronged with people coming and going, was 
the famous Forum or public square which had witnessed 
so many stirring scenes, from the exile of Tarquin to the 
funeral of Caesar. It was surrounded by magnificent 
temples and public buildings upon which had been lav- 
ished untold sums. 

Round about rose the celebrated seven hills, set thick 
with dwellings and palaces. Of these the best known is 
the Capitoline, where stood the temple of Jupiter and the 
citadel which had once defied the attack of the Gauls. 

In their temples and other public buildings the Romans 
had very largely copied the Greeks. But the simple 
and graceful temples of Greece were not gorgeous enough 
for them, and they added such features as colored marbles 
and columns richly carved with leaves and flowers. 



io6 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



The Romans, however, had some original ideas. 
Thev understood how to build arched roofs and door- 



\ '. L 







■••^-J- A, 






^f ,V3 ^S*" 



THE ROMAN FORXJM IN THE EARLY EMPIRE 

After the restoration 6y Professor E. Becchetti, Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Rome 

ways, and also how to put lofty domes on many of their 
temples. They learned, too, how to construct large 
buildings of brick and concrete instead of those entirely 
of stone. 

Of most of the notable buildings which once adorned 
Rome the visitor now sees only broken remains. About 
the ruined Forum we can see their crumbling arches and 
perhaps trace their foundations. Yet to this day one 
temple built in the time of the Roman Empire still stands 
to show us how a Roman structure actually looked. With 
its lofty dome and ornamental porch the famous Pan- 
theon carries the traveler back to the days when Caesar's 
word was law and his legions unconquerable. 

As the city grew, other public squares or "fora," 
splendidly adorned, were constructed as centers of life 



How the Romans Lived 



107 



in different parts of Rome. But none ever equaled the 
original Forum in importance. 

The busy streets of the world's capital were often 
beautified and shaded by "porticoes," or rows of columns 
covered by a roof but open to the air. Beneath the warm 
sun of Italy these structures gave welcome protection. 

Here thronged the vast population. The dignified 
senator clad in his toga and with sandals on his feet, the 
half -naked slave, the workman with his tools, the soldier 
with sword and helmet — Romans, swarthy Africans, rude 
Britons, cultured Greeks — might have been seen passing 
in rapid succession, for everybody who could came to 
Rome on pleasure or business. 

The senator, thinking over a speech he is to deliver, 
no doubt is on his way to the Senate House. Others 



v^ 








_ 1^ I -■ 



THE PANTHEON AT ROME 



The "Pantheon," a temple dedicated to all the gods was the most 
famous building of the "Age of Augustus" 

may be going to one of the great "basilicas," or buildings 
where courts of justice are held. Many, too, are on 



io8 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

their way to the public baths, for bathing was to the 
Romans one of the chief dehghts. 

The buildings which contained the baths were indeed 
among the most notable structures in Rome. Erected 
at great expense by Caesars anxious to gain the favor of 
the people, they contained not alone every possible 
arrangement for bathing, but lounging rooms, places for 
exercise and games, libraries, gardens, and many other 




A ROMAN EMPEROR CELEBRATING A TRIUMPH 



attractions. Many Romans seem to have spent most 
of their time there. 



How the Romans Lived 



109 



45. What a Roman Triumph Meant. But most 
splendid did the great city seem when a triumph was 




THE TRIUMPHAL ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME 

to be celebrated by Caesar or by some great general. 
Such a triumph was held after a victory over the enemies 
of Rome, when the successful commander and his army 
returned home. 

Up the Via Sacra, or Sacred Way, which led to the 
Capitohne Hill, came the splendid procession, with music 
and shouting, — first the magistrates of Rome and the 
senate; then the long line of cars and wagons piled high 
with the spoils taken in the war; next, loaded with chains, 
the captives, often the kings or princes of distant peoples. 
Now, riding in his chariot, came the victorious leader 
himself, clad in splendid apparel and crowned with a 
garland. Finally tramped in stern array the Roman 
soldiers, each legion bearing the eagles around which it 
had toiled and fought so well. 



no The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Along the route the populace greeted them with 
shouts of joy and praise, and sometimes threw flowers 
before their feet. No wonder that a triumph was one 
of the greatest honors which a Roman could attain. 

Sometimes, for still greater glory, a victorious emperor 
would set up in some public place a mighty column bearing 
aloft his statue; or cause a lofty triumphal arch to be 
constructed. Several of these still stand in Rome, 
commemorating the victories of seventeen or eighteen 
centuries ago. Even yet .we admire their grace, and 
sometimes copy them in our own great cities. 

46. Amusements of the Romans. Like the people 
of most great cities, the Romans became more and 
more fond of amusement. Imitating the Greeks, they 
thronged the theater and took pleasure in horse and 




From a print after the paiuting by Ulpiano Checa 
A CHARIOT RACE IN THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS 



chariot races held at great race courses called "circuses." 
But such amusement grew too tame. Under the 



How the Romans Lived iii 

empire the awful custom of holding public combats in 
which armed men called gladiators fought with each 



* 4i a r r T ^ 












THE COLISEUM AT ROME 

Elliptical in form, this vast structure, one of the greatest in the world, seating 87,000 
spectators, rose to a height of 137 feet 

other or with wild beasts became more and more popular. 
These gladiatorial shows were held in huge, open, circular 
structures of stone or concrete called amphitheaters. Of 
these the most famous is the gigantic Coliseum at Rome, 
but almost every important town in the empire could 
boast a similar though smaller building. 

Not merely the ignorant people crowded the stone 
seats, but even nobles and senators, and the Caesars 
themselves, clad in festal garments, were present and 
shouted their applause while the wretched gladiators 
fought and died before their eyes. 

These poor men were usually prisoners captured in 
war or else slaves carefully trained for the purpose. 
Generally they fought in pairs, but on great occasions 
small armies of them sometimes contended and the 
arenas, as the spaces in the center of the amphitheaters 
were called, ran with their blood. Savage beasts, such 



112 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




GLADIATORS FIGHTING 

When training, the gladiators always fought^ with 

■wooden swords. The word "gladiator" 

means swordsman 



as lions, tigers, and bears, were also brought at huge 
expense from distant lands to add to the bloody spectacle. 

Wealthy men seeking 
to be popular sometimes 
spent large sums in giv- 
ing the people such en- 
tertainments. Later the 
emperors furnished them 
regularly so that the 
people might praise their 
generosity and be kept by 
such amusements from 
rebelling against their 
rule. Perhaps the vilest 
thing of all occurred 
when several of the worst 
emperors tried to win the applause of the Roman mob by 
taking part in the games themselves, using care, however, 
that they should be protected against all chance of 
injury. One wicked emperor fought with gladiators who 
had as weapons only swords made of lead or tin. 

Such wicked and brutal amusements did much to 
make the Romans cruel and cowardly. This was one 
of several reasons wh}^ under the Caesars, they were no 
longer the brave and honorable men who had expelled 
the Tarquins and forced victory from Carthage. 

47. The Destruction of Pompeii. The rich Romans 
loved to have their villas and summer homes in attractive 
places. No wonder that many chose the shores of the 
beautiful Bay of Naples with its blue waves, vine-clad 
hills, and background of mountains. K[ere, too, were 
flourishing towns, one of which was called Pompeii. It 



How the Romans Lived 113 

is true that slight earthquakes were not unknown in that 
region, and that Mt. Vesuvius which stood near had once 
been a volcano, but of those things men thought little. 

But one summer afternoon in the year 79 a.d. a strange 
thing happened. Over the mountain was seen a huge 
cloud, now bright, now black and misty in appearance. 
As it stretched out from the mountain top it looked to 
some like a huge pine tree. At first people wondered 
what this strange thing was; soon they were filled with 
terror. Ashes and stones began to fall; loud rumbling 
noises were heard; the earth shook, and seemed to rise 
up and push back the sea. It grew dark, and the air was 
filled with stifling odors. 

In their panic all who could fled, some even putting 
pillows or cushions on their heads. But in the darkness 
many lost their way, and all were calling out to each 
other in horror and despair. It seemed that the whole 
world was about to be destroyed. 

In truth, it was Mt. Vesuvius which had suddenly 
burst forth in so terrible an eruption that the entire 
top of the mountain was blown off by the explosion and 
the country for miles around buried beneath ashes and the 
streams of lava which rushed down the mountain slopes. 

How many people perished in this terrible event we 
shall never know. But since Vesuvius by its smoke 
and rumbling gave warning of what was to happen, it 
is clear that most of the population, though stricken with 
panic, had time to make their escape. The beautiful 
towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum were, however, 
overwhelmed and buried, and the slopes of the mountain, 
once green with orchard and vineyard, were now only 
wastes of smoking ashes. 



114 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




STREET OF FORTUNE, POMPEII 

Showing ruts worn in pavement by carts 
and chariots 



Yet for us to-day the destruction of Pompeii has 
given one good result. In recent times the ashes have 

been carefully dug away, and 
we can now see this old Roman 
city just as it was in the days 
of the Roman Empire. There 
are the streets, the market 
places, the theaters, the houses, 
the very ruts worn in the pave- 
ments by the passing carts and 
wagons. Even objects like 
loaves af bread in the oven and 
jugs of wine for sale in the 
shops were found just as people 
left them on that day of terror. 
Here, too, were discovered the skeletons of some of the 
unfortunates who could not flee. 

Though all the other cities of the once great empire 
have fallen to hopeless ruin, the visitor to Pompeii can 
thus see just how the Romans lived and carried on their 
work and their play. 

48. Roman Houses. A city like Pompeii was of 
course surrounded by a strong wall for defense. The 
houses were built very close together, and the streets 
were rather narrow. When crowded with people and 
carts it must have been a noisy place. 

The houses in Pompeii usually had no windows 
looking out on the street, except in the second story. 
The light and air came through openings in the roof or 
from the small courtyard, which every good house had. 
When the visitor entered the house of a well-to-do 
family he first passed through a small vestibule or open 



How the Romans Lived 



115 



space. Sometimes a dog was kept here. One house at 
Pompeii has a picture of a fierce dog in the paved floor, 
with the warning words, "Cavi canem," "Beware the 
dog." 

After passing through a short hall, the visitor entered 
a large room, the main living room of the house. If the 
owner were rich it was adorned with statues and carv- 
ings. In the center was always a large opening in the 
roof, and beneath it a basin or pool to catch the rain. 

Opening ofif the sides of this main room were little 
rooms and in some cases the stairway leading to the 
upper story. In the rear corner were two large alcoves, 
or sometimes rather large separate rooms. In one of 
these were kept the statues of the gods and of the ancestors 
of the family. In their honor the master of the house 
with his wife and children performed worship and 
offered sacrifices. The other corner room or alcove is 
thought to have been used as a dining room. 

Directly at the rear of the 
main living room, and usually 
separated frojn it by curtains, 
was the room of the master of 
the house. We may call it his 
office or business room. Here 
he kept his accounts and had 
his strong box with its treasure. 

Passing through the master's 
room we come next to the most 
striking part of the whole build- 
ing. This was the large court or 
garden open to the sky, beautified by flowers and statues, 
and surrounded by a colonnade Around this fine court 




MOSAIC FROM FLOOR OF POMPEII 
HOUSE 



ii6 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



were numerous rooms arranged according to the taste of 
the family. Here was the kitchen with dining rooms, 
storerooms, and private apartments. 

Though Roman houses differed sometimes in small 
ways, all were on the same general plan. Sometimes, if 
the family were very wealthy, there would be a larger 
garden, with rows of terraces behind the residence. On 
the outside of the house, along the busy street, there 
were little shops or stores. These were rented to people 
who sold different articles. But such shops opened off 
the street and never into the house. 

49. How the Romans Lived. In such a dwelling a 
well-to-do Roman and his family lived, surrounded by 
their slaves, who did all the hard work. Here, too, came 
every morning the master's "clients," that is, poor men 
who had put themselves under his protection. They 
wished him good morning, and he greeted them cordially 
by name, and sometimes even kissed them. A Roman 
-T2^-"i_' ;,v: V -■ ' was proud if he 

had a great num- 
ber of clients. 

The clothing 
worn by the Ro- 
mans was not 
much like ours. 
Beneath the 
warm Italian 
sky close fitting 
tjarments such 



iNTERK.Rui koMA 1; I 1 as wc wcar wcrc 

not needed. Indoors, the only clothing worn by a Ro- 
man man or boy was the "tunic." This was merely a 



f'W 



How the Romans Lived 117 

loose woolen shirt, with short sleeves, held up by a girdle 
at the waist. But when a Roman went forth in public 
he put on over this the famous "toga." This was a long 
and heavy white cloak wrapped about the body in such 
a way as to fall in graceful folds. The togas of men who 
held important offices were marked by a broad purple 
stripe on the border. 

Not until a boy was old enough to be a full Roman 
citizen could he wear the man's toga. When he first 
put it on there was an impressive ceremony, when he 
was taken before a public officer at Rome and introduced 
by his father. 

The Romans wore shoes and boots much like ours, 
but in the house they often used sandals. Hose or 
stockings they never wore. Workmen and sailors some- 
times had caps or hats, but the wealthy usually went 
bareheaded, except when upon a journey. 

Roman women wore three garments instead of two. 
Over the inner tunic was a longer outer covering, and 
on the street Roman ladies had a graceful cloak or 
mantle much like the toga, though it was never called 
by that name. 

A Roman family generally rose very early in the morn- 
ing, often about daylight. For breakfast they ate little, 
sometimes only bread and honey. The chief business 
of the day was done in the morning. About half-past 
eleven, as we reckon time, they had lunch. This, too, 
was a rather light meal. After lunch everybody went to 
sleep for an hour or so. This "siesta" was a regular part 
of the program for the day, and seldom indeed omitted. 

Every afternoon the master of the house went forth 
to his bath, which in the city was usually enjoyed in one 
9 



ii8 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



of the magnificent public buildings erected by the emperor. 
Here the Roman met his friends and conversed with 

them or played games for exercise. 
Finally he returned to a great 
dinner, which was to the wealthy 
the crowning enjoyment of the 
day. Instead of sitting at the 
table, as we do, the guests re- 
clined on cushions. The meal 
occupied hours, and the diners 
were often entertained by slaves 
who played musical instruments 
and sang or danced. In later 
times, as the Romans grew more 
and more fond of luxury, the 
entertainment often went on far 
into the night, and many drank 
heavily of wine. 

For the Roman children the 
task of the day was of course 
quite different. Until they were 
about seven they were taught at 
home, perhaps by their parents, 
but more often by some educated slave. Then the boys 
usually, and the girls sometimes, went to school. School 
began very early, and the children often bought their 
breakfasts at some baker's shop on the way. The children 
of the wealthy were always in charge of reliable old slaves 
called "pedagogues," who went with them and carried 
their books. 

In the earlier days of Rome not many subjects were 
taught at school, — only reading, writing, and a little 




FIGURES IN ROMAN COSTUME 

I, Toga; b, tunic; c, tunic worn by 

women; d, slola and palla, outer 

garments worn by Roman 

matrons 



How the Romans Lived 119 

arithmetic. For music and the beautiful things which 
so dehghted the Greeks the Romans at first cared little. 
But since the boys must some day be soldiers they were 
taught to swim, to ride, and to throw the javelin. 

Later, after Greece had been conquered, the Romans 
became enthusiastic about everything Greek. Soon, in 
the higher schools, the Roman youths began to study the 
Greek language just as we now try to learn something of 
French or German. Greek teachers, who taught the poems 
of Homer and other Greek writings, also came to Rome. 

Often the children of the rich were actually sent to 
Greece to visit Athens for a short time and perhaps to 
listen to the famous Greek philosophers. 

But when the time approached to begin the real 
business of life, the sons of noble Romans all wanted to 
be statesmen and to hold public office, to become soldiers, 
or to be judges and lawyers. Though they had once 
been such a practical people, the Romans, like the Greeks, 
had come to have the foolish idea that all labor with the 
hands is fit only for slaves. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE. PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. In the center of Rome was the 
famous Forum or public square. 2. In their buildings the 
Romans copied the Greeks, but also used arches and domes. 
J. The city of Rome was the busiest place in the world. 4. 
One of the grandest occasions was when a triumph was cele- 
brated after a victory in war. 5. The Romans took a cruel 
joy in the combats of gladiators. 6. The city of Pompeii was 
buried by the ashes and lava from an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. 
7. Pompeii has now been uncovered, and we can thus see just 
how a Roman city looked. 8. A Roman house was not very 
much like ours. p. The daily life of both grown people and 
children was also different in many ways from that of our day. 

Study Questions, i. How did the public buildings of Rome 



I20 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

differ from those of Greece? 2. Look at the picture of the 
Pantheon, and then describe it. j. What are some of the 
things that you would have seen in the streets of Rome in 
the time of the emperors? 4. Describe a Roman triimiph. 5. 
What were the gladiatorial shows? 6. How did the Romans 
feel as they looked at them? 7. Tell the story of the eruption 
of Mt. Vesuvius as if you had been one of those who fled from a 
villa near Pompeii. 8. What are some of the things that have 
been found in this city? g. Describe a Roman house. 10. 
What are some of the ways in which it differed from our houses ? 
II. What seems to you the most beautiful feature of a Roman 
house? 12. How did the clothing of the Romans differ from 
ours? 13. Tell how a Roman family spent their day. 14. 
What were some of the ways in which a Roman school differed 
from yours? 

Suggested Readings. Harding, The City oj the Seven Hills, 
212-223, 239-250; Lovell, Stories in Stone from the Roman 
Forum, 1-66; Retold from "St. Nicholas": Stories of Greece and 
Rome, 1 19-198; Church, Roman Life in the Days of Cicero, 1-26; 
Guhl and Koner, The Life of the Greeks and Romans Described 
from Antique Monuments, 357-375, 390-424, 476-511. 



NEW THOUGHTS IN ROME 

50. Great Roman Writers. It would be a great 
mistake indeed to think of all Romans as cruel or brutal. 
Among them, even in the days of the empire, were men 
who had high and noble thoughts. 

When Greece was conquered, the best Italians were 
delighted by the poems and books, the temples and 
statues, of the subjugated people, and Greek art and 
learning soon became the fashion. Wealthy Romans 
took pride in having statues and pictures like those of 
the Greeks, and every educated Roman studied the Greek 
language. Books began to be prized. 

The books of the Romans did not look very much 
like ours. They were nothing but long rolls of a kind 



New Thoughts in Rome 121 

of paper made from the papyrus plant which grew only 
in Egypt. This paper was very beautiful, but it was 
brittle, and the papyrus books that have come down to 
us are badly cracked and broken. Since the printing 
press was unknown, the books had to be written by hand. 
The writing was in black ink and went across the paper 
in columns. Between the columns were lines in red ink. • 
The books were rolled around sticks with ornamented 
ends and often tied with thongs. Sometimes the rolls 
had parchment cases or covers of some bright color like 
yellow or purple. 

When a Roman was reading he held the book before 
him with both hands, slowly rolhng up with his left hand 
what he had already finished and unrolling with his right 
the part of the book he had not yet seen. When he had 
finished, the beginning or top of the book would be 
inside and the end out. So, to prepare the book for the 
next reader, he had to unwind it all and roll it up the 
other way. 

When a Roman scholar or poet had written a book 
and wished to pubhsh it, he put it in the hands of the 
bookseller he had chosen. The bookseller had many 
skillful clerks whose business it was to make copies. 
But well trained though they were, they could turn out 
only pitifully few books as compared with even a hand 
press to-day. Every copy, moreover, had to be carefully 
examined lest mistakes be made. In ancient times only 
the rich, therefore, could afford to own or even see books. 
When the copying was done, the Roman bookseller 
tacked up on his door the name of the book and that of 
the author. But there were no laws, as there are to-day, 
to prevent any one from making as many additicfnal 



122 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




After painting by C. Jalabert 
HORACE AND FRIENDS LISTENING TO A READING BY VERGIL 



copies as he chose. Unless the writer received a gift 
from some wealthy person he had mentioned in his book 

he seems to have 
gained nothing 
but honor from 
the whole pro- 
ceeding. 

In matters 
of daily business 
the Romans did 
not usually write 
with ink on pa- 
per. Instead, 
they used tab- 
lets made of 
wood covered 
with wax. In place of a pen they used a sharp instru- 
ment called a stylus. With the point of this they traced 
the letters in the soft wax. The leaves of the tablets were 
often tied together and opened like those of our books. 

At first all the best books were in Greek. But soon 
beautiful poems and notable books began to be written 
in Latin, and the best rulers, like the Emperor Augustus, 
protected and rewarded scholars. Some of the finest 
Roman writers are not unworthy of comparison with 
even the great men of Greece. Foremost among these 
stands the famous poet, Vergil. His greatest poem tells 
how, when the city of Troy was destroyed by the Greeks, 
one of the bravest Trojan heroes, ^neas, escaped with 
his trusty followers and after lengthy wanderings and 
strange adventures landed in Italy. These heroes, sang 
Vergil, were the ancestors of the Roman race. 



New Thoughts in Rome 



123 



An altogether different kind of writer was the much- 
loved Horace. No stirring deeds of gods and heroes did 
he sing, but rather amused all by his genial and quiet 
humor. 

Another famous Roman was the great orator, Cicero, 
whose speeches are still studied by those who seek to 
improve themselves as orators and statesmen. By his 
eloquence Rome was once saved from bloodshed and 
possible destruction at the hands of certain desperate 
men, who, to escape from the consequences of their wicked 
deeds, plotted to overthrow the republic. 

Yet, though the Romans thus had fine scholars and 
writers, most of them followed closely in the footsteps 
of the Greeks. In one respect, however, the Romans 
went far beyond any other ancient nation. Roman 
judges and lawyers were by far the greatest the world 




After painting by Macarri 
CICERO SPEAKING IN THE ROMAN SENATE 



had yet known. Even in our own day their law books 
are studied and admired, and teach us much that is useful. 



124 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



There were famous philosophers in Roman times, too, 
though none equaled Socrates and Plato. Perhaps the 
greatest were those called "Stoics." They taught that 
men should never give way to pain or pleasure, but do 
their duty no matter what happens. When a man 
endures terrible pain or misfortune with calmness, we 
still sometimes say, "He is a Stoic." 

51. The Coming of Christianity. The Stoics were 
good and noble men, but only a few very intelligent 
people could understand what they taught. If the 
Romans were to be saved from their cruelty and vice, 
something more was needed than the Stoic philosophy. 

When it seemed that 
the world was to be 
ruined by its own wicked- 
ness, a wonderful thing 
happened. From Judaea, 
a far-distant province of 
the empire, came the 
strange tidings of the 
life and death of Jesus 
Christ, of Him who had 
perished on the cross but 
left behind a message of 
salvation and good cheer. 
Soon his disciples were 
preaching the news far 
and wide, and with their 

From an engraving after the original painting /j\Z'<x\. U VCl CUllllIi^ cxlL DU- 
ST. PAUL PREACHING AT ATHENS cfaHpC 

Nor was the message for the rich and great alone, 
for the new faith taught that all men are equal in the 




New Thoughts in Rome 



125 




Louvre, Paris 
EMPEROR NERO 



sight of God, and the poorest and humblest can share 

equally in the Christian's reward. At the head of the 

teachers of the new religion were Peter, 

a fisherman, and Paul, a scholar, who 

knew how to speak so that all might 

understand. Though at first the high- 

and noble would give little heed, many 

of the poor and lowly eagerly accepted 

the glad tidings. 

52. How the Early Christians Were 
Treated. At the beginning the Roman 
emperors cared little about the Chris- 
tians. But when their numbers in- 
creased, trouble came. The Christians were suspected of 
forming a dangerous secret organization. When they met 
privately to celebrate the Lord's Supper, it was thought 
that they plotted treason against Caesar. Under the laws 
of Rome people might believe what they liked about life 
and death, but all were required to worship the image 
of the emperor, head of the Roman state. This the 
Christians would not do. They thought it a sin to wor- 
ship any one but God. 

From time to time terrible persecution fell upon them. 
Those who would not obey the emperor were condemned 
to most avv^ul sufferings. Often their death occurred in 
the amphitheater, and the spectators saw groups of Chris- 
tians, men and women, kneel in prayer until wild beasts 
released from their cages sprang forth and devoured them. 

The most terrible of all the persecutions was in the 
time of the brutal emperor Nero. This tyrant delighted 
the Roman mob by giving gladiatorial contests and 
games, but for his own pleasure he committed aw^ful 



126 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



crimes. According to a story which many people have 
believed, he cared so little for the welfare of the people 
that when the city of Rome caught fire he played and 
sang a poem that he had written about the destruction of 
Troy. When people cried out against his conduct, he 
cast the blame for the fire upon the Christians, and 
caused thousands to be put to death. He even lighted 
his gardens by having Christians bound to crosses and 
smeared with pitch, and then set on fire. Under Nero 
perished both St. Peter and St. Paul. 

No wonder then that the early Christians met in 
secret places like the famous Catacombs, a name given 
to the narrow and dark underground passages con- 
structed beneath a part of the city as burial places for 

the dead. Many 
of these galleries 
were dug out by 
the Christians 
themselves, and 
here may still be 
seen the resting 
places of their 
dead, marked by 
the cross and by 
other symbols of 
the new faith. 

53. Christianity 
Triumphs. But 
sword and fire 
could not crush the religion of Christ. An ever increas- 
ing number of men and women adopted the faith which 
taught the martyrs to die so bravely. 







CHRISTIANS WORSHIPING IN THE CATACOMBS 

The Roman Catacombs were originally quarries. Though 

for the most part long, narrow passages, there were 

occasionally larger chambers for worship 

and for burial places 



128 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




CONSTANTINE 

After the bust in Church of S. 
Giovanni in Lativano, Rome 



Finally there came a great civil war in Rome, waged 
by a number of powerful men each of whom claimed to 
be emperor. Of these one was Con- 
stantine, who was proclaimed Caesar 
by the troops in the island of Britain. 
Since Constantine's mother was a 
Christian, he was well disposed to- 
ward this religion, and many Chris- 
tians joined his forces. 

There is a famous old story that 
as Constantine and his army were 
bravely marching against their en- 
emies there was suddenly seen a cross blazing in the sky, 
and, underneath, the words, "In this sign thou shalt con- 
quer." At any rate, 
it is certain this able 
general thought it best 
to win the support of 
the Christians by put- 
ting the cross on his 
standard. (312 a.d.) 
Under it he over- 
threw and destroyed 
all his foes and then 
triumphantly estab- 
lished his power as 
Caesar. As a result 
he declared that 
Christians should be 
tolerated, and he was 
finally baptized a 
Christian himself. 




Afti.r paintint 1)\ \. t happel 
CONSTANTIVE BEHOLDING THE \ ISION 



New Thoughts in Rome 



129 




What a great change this was, when a supporter of the 
new faith occupied the imperial throne of the Caesars! 

The worshipers of 
the old gods struggled 
hard, but the world 
was too wise to believe 
any longer in Jupiter 
and Juno. In time the 
pagan belief itself was 
forbidden, and the 
temples of the gods 
changed into Christian 
churches. Where once 
pagans had sacrificed 
to the deities of Olym- 
pus, now were heard 
Christian hymns and 

■nrci-^T^ArQ ct-nr\ r^Viriefian Early Christian art represented Jesus under numerous 
jJictycib, dliu \^llliSLiclli symbols, the commonest being the lamb and the 

KicVir^-rvc o-nrl -n-riVcfc QT-> fi^^- The Holy Ghost was represented by 

Ulbliupb dllU piiCbLb ctp- ^ ^Qi,g. tj,g giiyg branch denoted peace; 

1 1 •„ the palm, triumph 

peared everywhere m 

the empire beside Roman officials, judges, and soldiers. 
Just as the Romans had formerly shown themselves 
able to organize their vast empire, now they showed 
themselves equally skillful in establishing the new religion. 
In each village and country district a priest or minister 
was placed to preach to the people and conduct service in 
the church. Every large city had its bishop, who had 
control over all the priests in the surrounding region. 
In the capital of each province was the archbishop, a 
still more dignified officer, and finally, in the greatest 
cities like Rome, Constantinople, and Alexandria, were 
the most powerful bishops, or "patriarchs," of all. 



EARLY CHRISTIAN SYMBOLS FOUND IN THE 
CATACOMBS 



I30 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Thus the Roman church was like another great Roman 
empire. But it was an empire of the souls of men rather 
than of their bodies. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts. /. The Romans became very fond of 
Greek poetry and art. 2. Among the greatest of all Romans 
are the poets, Vergil and Horace, and the orator, Cicero, j. 
The philosophers, called Stoics, taught that men should lead 
noble lives. 4. The Christian religion was taught by Peter 
and Paul. 5. The first Christians were mainly poor and 
humble men and women. 6. The early Christians had to 
endure terrible persecution, and many lost their lives in the 
amphitheater. 7. Finally the great emperor, Constantine, 
freed the Christians from persecution. 8. Christianity then 
became the religion of Rome, and the pagan worship was 
forbidden. 

Study Questions, i. Why did the Romans do \^ell to 
imitate the poems and statues of the Greeks ? 2. Who were the 
greatest Roman writers and scholars ? 3. State an important idea 
held by the Stoics. 4. Why were the poor so willing to accept 
Christianity? 5. If the early Christians were good men, why 
were they persecuted? 6. Tell the story about Nero and the 
Christians. 7. How did the feeling of the Romans regarding 
Christianity change as they saw the Christians die so bravely? 
8. Who was Constantine? 9. Why did he put the cross on his 
standard? 10. What was the chief result of his victory over 
his rivals? //. Name the various kinds of officers in the 
Christian church of the Roman Empire. 

Suggested Readings. Tappan, The Story of the Roman 
People, 215-222; Yonge, Young Folks' History of Rome, 285- 
354; Harding, The City of the Seven Hills, 173-183; Guerber, 
The Story of the Romans; Church, Stories from Virgil, 2-95, 
210-266. 

THE DOWNFALL OF ROME • 

54. The Decline of the Roman Empire. Now that 
Christianity had won, it might be thought that the 



The Downfall of Rome 131 

Roman Empire would flourish. But the victory came 
too late; Rome was doomed. 

No one in all the empire had any real power but the 
Caesar, and many of the later emperors were weak and 
foolish men. The people were burdened by heavy taxes, 
and this money was wasted on things which did no good. 
Everywhere existed the curse of slavery, and the people 
had forgotten how to be brave in war. Even the wealthy 
and intelligent Romans, weakened by luxury, could no 
longer lead in peace or on the battlefield. Learning itself 
declined. No more fine poems or books were written, 
and the buildings were not so beautiful as before. The 
world seemed to be dying. 

In course of time things would perhaps have come 
right again, just as a man recovers from a long sickness, 
but this was not to be. Outside of the Roman Empire, 
in the region of dark forests across the Rhine and the 
Danube, had long dwelt a fierce and sturdy race called 
the Teutons, or Germans. When the Romans were con- 
quering all the other peoples it seemed as if Germany, 
too, would fall beneath their sway. 

But the Teutons dearly loved their freedom, and 
when Augustus had succeeded in subduing some of their 
tribes, they suddenly revolted, under the le^d of a brave 
chief named Hermann. As the legions of the great 
Roman emperor were toiling through the wild Teuto- 
burger forest in pursuit of the rebels, Hermann and his 
strong warriors suddenly fell upon them and destroyed 
the whole force. 

The Romans were thus taught that Germany must 
be free. Though they had many other wars with the 
Teutons, and sometimes defeated them in battle, even 



132 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

the strongest Caesars had to content themselves with 
guarding their own frontier. 

Bands of the Germans soon began trying to break 
over the Roman boundaries for the sake of plunder. One 
large party which thus invaded Gaul had been destroyed 
by Julius Caesar. But though constantly driven back, 
the Germans kept returning to the attack. A large part 
of the Roman army had to be kept on the Rhine and 
the Danube to check them. But as the empire grew 
weaker and weaker, this became always more difficult 
to do. 

Strong rulers like Constantine the Great tried to 
strengthen the empire so that it might better resist the 
barbarians. He thought it would be better if the prov- 
inces in the east should have a capital of their own, since 
the city of Rome was too far away. On the celebrated 
strait now called the Bosphorus had long stood an ancient 
Greek city called Byzantium. This was just the place, 
thought the great emperor, to found a second Rome. So 
he rebuilt the old Greek town and named it after himself, 
Constantinople, — the city of Constantine. Spreading out 
like a great crescent from the blue waters of its harbor, 
this magnificent city soon equaled and even excelled Rome 
in beauty and importance. 

The founding of Constantinople and other changes 
greatly strengthened the Roman Empire for a time. 
But when weak Caesars came into power all went wrong 
again. 

55. The Downfall of Rome (476 A.D.) Now appeared 
a new and terrible danger. From central Asia swept, 
like a swarm of destroying locusts, a fierce race of wild 
horsemen called the Huns. Mounted on shaggy ponies, 



The Downfall of Rome 



133 




From a print after the paintjng by Ulpii 
THE COMING OF THE HUNS 



hideous of form, and cruel and savage in disposition, these 
people, with their overwhelming numbers, swept all 
before them. 

Pressed by 
such enemies, the 
German tribes 
strove more des- 
perately than ever 
to cross the Ro- 
man boundaries, 
and at last the 
weakening legions 
gave way before them. When a Teutonic people called the 
Goths appeared on the Danube, and begged permission 
to cross, the Romans made the fatal mistake of allowing 
this huge multitude of barbarians to enter their territory. 
But when they had crossed the river the Goths soon 
defied the Roman emperor, defeated his army, and slew 
him in a great battle at Adrianople. 

All chance of keeping out the barbarians was now lost, 
and one tribe of Germans after another swarmed over 
the Rhine and the Danube, pillaging and destroying. 

But far more cruel and destructive than the German 
tribes were the fierce Huns, who, under the leadership of 
their terrible chieftain, Attila, followed at their heels. To 
the terrified Romans it seemed, indeed, that the Huns 
left nothing but smoking ashes in their track, and with 
trembling lips they repeated Attila's awful boast, that 
the grass never grew where his horse's hoofs had trod. 
It seemed that before their onslaught civilization would 
be blotted out. 

So great was the danger to all, that Goths and Romans 
10 



134 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



combined their forces against the Huns, and on the 
battlefield of Chalons, in Gaul, the fate of the empire 
was decided. Long the issue was in doubt. But when 
the king of the Goths was slain, his warriors charged with 
such desperate courage to avenge him that the Huns 
gave way. When night came, Attila was beaten and 
Europe saved. 

Though the Huns were still troublesome and later 
penetrated even into Italy, they were never again so 
dangerous, and finally withdrew eastward. The present 
people of Hungary, now justly ranked among the most 

civilized nations of 
Europe, are believed 
by many people to 
be the descendants 
of Attila 's ferocious 
warriors. 

But though the 
empire was thus 
saved from the Huns, 
conditions were still 
bad enough. The 
Teutonic tribes kept 
pressing in, and 
?, though they were 
not indeed savages, 
they wrought destruc- 
tion only a little less 
terrible than had the 
Huns themselves. 
Less and less able to resist them became the enfeebled 
Roman legions. When the Eternal City herself was 




ALARIC DESCENDING ON ROME 



The Coming of the Teutons 135 

taken and sacked by the northern invaders, a long night 
for art, learning, and industry began. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. The Roman Empire was benefited 
by Christianity, but weakened by many other things, such 
as slavery, heavy taxes, and the feebleness of many of the 
emperors. 2. The Romans had never been able to conquer 
the brave Teutonic tribes who lived across the Rhine and the 
Danube, j. These people kept trying to break into the 
empire. 4. As it became hard to keep them out, able emperors 
like Constantine did their best to strengthen the Roman 
power. 5. Finally the terrible Huns came into Europe from 
central Asia. 6. They drove some of the Teutons before 
them into Roman territory. 7. The Huns were finally defeated 
at the battle of Chalons. 8. The Teutonic tribes kept coming 
into the Roman Empire to plunder and to conquer, g. The 
city of Rome itself was finally captured and sacked. 

Study Questions, i. Make a list of things which weakened 
the Roman Empire. 2. Who were the Teutons? j. Why did 
the Romans not conquer them? 4. Why did the Teutons wish 
to invade Roman territory? 5. Explain how Constantine tried 
to strengthen the Roman Empire. 6. Why is Constantinople 
well situated to be a great city? 7. What was the character 
of the Huns? 8. Tell the results of their coming into Europe. 
g. Why was the battle of Chalons more important than most 
battles? 10. Why was it better that the Roman Empire 
should be conquered by the Teutons rather than by the Huns? 

Suggested Readings. Tappan, The Story of the Roman 
People, 223-237; Yonge, Young Folks' History of Rome, 374-443; 
Guerber, The Story of the Romans. 



THE COMING OF THE TEUTONS 

56. What Kind of People the Early Germans Were. 

When the Teutons, or Germans, dwelt in the forests of 
northern Europe they were a simple, barbarous people. 
Perhaps they knew hardly more than the best tribes of 



136 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



American Indians. Unlike the dark-skinned inhabitants 
of Italy and Gaul, the Germans were tall and fair. When 
clad in the skins of beasts and waving their spears and 
two-edged swords, they rushed to the attack with their 
fierce blue eyes gleaming through their long yellow or 
red hair, it is no wonder that they often seemed like 
giants to the Roman soldiers who opposed them. 

The ancient Germans were divided into tribes such as 
the Angles, the Franks, and the Saxons, some of which 
have given their names to important countries or dis- 
tricts of modern Europe like England (Angle-land), 
France, and Saxony. Since most of all the Teutons 

delighted in war, they were con- 
tinually engaged in savage con- 
flicts among themselves. They 
loved daring deeds and adven- 
tures, and often went upon 
distant expeditions in quest of 
plunder and excitement. Peace 
these barbarians thought stupid. 
So they spent their days idling 
and gambling. 

Unlike the people of the Ro- 
man Empire, who bowed down 
before Caesar, these tall warriors 
felt that every man should be 
free to do as he pleased. Some 
of the tribes had kings, but when 
anything of importance was to 
be decided all the freemen came 
together in a meeting called a "folk-moot." Here, with 
their weapons in their hands, they listened to what 




A TEUTONIC WARRIOR 



The Coming of the Teutons 



137 



the chiefs proposed and shouted out their approval or 
dissent. If the king died or was slain in battle, the 
warriors chose another, 
raising him on a shield 
with loud cries and the 
clashing of weapons. 

Every tribe, every 
district, even every vil- 
lage had its meeting, and 
if all the warriors could 
not come together, it was 
the custom for the vil- 
lages to send picked men 
to speak for them as re- 
presentatives. Yet even 
when some question had 
been decided, each war- 
rior was free to do as he 
pleased. If he did not 
wish to take part in an 
expedition, no one could compel him to go. It was 
deemed cowardly, however, to refrain from war. 

The Germans knew nothing of cities or towns, but 
dwelt far apart in villages in the wilderness. When 
later they saw the Roman cities, they despised and often 
destroyed them. At first they lived by hunting and 
fishing, but in time learned how to till the soil in rude 
ways. The land around each village was thought, how- 
ever, to belong equally to all the people living in it, and 
each year the fields were divided anew by lot. So one 
warrior did not often become much richer than the rest. 

These rough old Teutons had some fine ideas. They 




RAISING THE CHIEF ON A SHIELD 



138 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




ODIN, ALL-F\THER OF THE 



held women in great respect, and women often had much 
influence among them. Frequently they went with the 
warriors to the battlefield, and by 
cry and gesture urged them on to 
brave deeds. Here, too, the women 
cared for the wounded, and in time 
of dire need they even mingled 
in the fray. 

Like most early peoples, the 
Teutons worshiped the forces of 
GODS nature, to which they gave names 
as gods and goddesses. Their chief god, the sky, was 
called Odin or Woden, and another fierce old god was 
Thor, who made the thunder with his huge war hammer. 
Even yet we call some of the days of the week by names 
taken from those of the old German gods, as Wednesday 
(Wodensday) and Thursday (Thorsday). 

The gods, thought the Teutons, loved brave men, 
and all who met death fighting courageously were taken 
to Woden's great hall, Valhalla. When a battle was rag- 
ing the daughters of Woden, called the Valkyries, hovered 
over the slaughter and picked out the best and bravest 
warriors to grace their father's board. The chosen men 
fell ; but the Valkyries, mounted on magic steeds, at once 
carried them through the sky to Woden's palace. Here 
they would forever feast, and drink from the skulls of 
their enemies. 

Among the hero stories of the early Teutons the most 
famous are those set forth in a long poem called the 
Song of the Niebelungs. Though this was not written 
down until after the life of the German tribes had been 
greatly changed, its incidents, filled with fighting and 



The Coming of the Teutons 139 

adventurous deeds, show that it must have been com- 
posed at a very early time. 

The Song of the Niebelungs tells of the life and death 
of a strong hero named Siegfried. Armed with a magic 
sword and provided with a magic cap by which he could 
become invisible, Siegfried slew a terrible dragon and 
won a great treasure. But unhappily this treasure 
brought a curse to whomsoever owned it. Urged on by the 
fierce Brunhild, a woman whom Siegfried had once loved, 
a cruel warrior named Hagen stabbed the hero from 
behind and slew him. But Siegfried's wife thirsted for 
revenge, and in the end brought all his enemies to mis- 
erable slaughter. 

Such stories could only come from a race which 
delighted in red conflict and the clash of arms. 

Like most barbarous people, the ancient Teutons 
had other bad faults besides fondness for battle. Per- 
haps the worst was their love for strong drink. But 
though they were- a rough folk, with crude notions on 
many things, they became great because they had the 
ability to learn. 

To Americans they must always 
seem important, for most of us 
have more or less of their blood in 
our veins. 

57. Conquests of the German 
Tribes. At first the Teutons often 
made raids into the Roman Em- 
pire merely for plunder. But in 
course of time many Germans were ^"°'*' '^°° °^ thunder 
allowed to enter peacefully. Many enlisted in the Roman 
armies and learned to become good Roman soldiers. 




I40 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Others were put upon the land to take the place of 
peasants who had died or been slain. But though 
great numbers thus came into Roman territory, there 
were always more behind. Finally whole tribes of Ger- 
mans left their native wilds and wandered into southern 
Europe, seeking new homes. With each band of fair- 
haired warriors came a long line of lumbering carts, in 
which they brought their wives, their children, and their 
rude household goods. 

When the Roman legions could no longer drive them 
back, terrible destruction was often wrought by these 
people. Rich cities were plundered and ruined, and 
whole districts of the country made almost deserts. 
Rome itself, so long the proud capital of the world, was 
finally taken by the Goths under their great chief Alaric, 
and for three days given over to sack and plunder. 

But though the Teutonic tribes were barbarous they 
were by no means savages. When they had overthrown 
the Roman governors and pillaged to their heart's con- 
tent, they finally settled down in different parts of the 
Roman territory, establishing kingdoms of their own 
under the rule of their strong war chiefs. Thus the 
Goths settled in Spain, the Franks in France, and the 
Lombards in northern Italy. 

The invaders took possession of much of the land for 
their own use, but by no means all the Roman inhabitants 
were, slain. They remained in subjection to their new 
German masters, and, as centuries rolled by, gradually 
intermarried with them and thus formed new peoples. 
So from the union of the coriquering Teutons and the 
conquered Romans came the French, the Spaniards, and 
the Italians of our day. Since in southern Europe the 



The Coming of the Teutons 



141 



Roman people were far more numerous than their con- 
querors, the Itahans and Spaniards have much more 
Roman than Teutonic blood. In northern Europe, the 
blue eyes and fair hair of the people show that they are 
descended mainly from the old German warriors. 

But after the coming of the Teutons what had been 
the Roman Empire was much changed. These rough 
people knew little of civilized life, and of course could 
not give up their warlike ways at once. Even after 
they had begun to settle amid the conquered Romans 
they continued to carry on fierce wars with each other. 
One German king continually attacked . another, and 
when a ruler died his sons were almost sure to contend 
in bloody contest for his power. Bloodshed and massacre 
now took the place of that peace which the Roman Empire 
had once secured with its strong hand. 

No more cities were built, no more roads were con- 
structed, no more 
books were writ- 
ten. Civilization 
was indeed at 
low ebb. The 
time called the 
"Middle Ages" 
had begun for 
Europe. It was 
a period of dark- 
ness and cruelty. 



58. Britain 




TEUTONS PLUNDERING A ROMAN CITY 



Conquered by 

the Angles and Saxons (449 A.D.). For three hundred 

and fifty years the Romans had ruled Britain, the land 



142 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

once visited by the legions of Julius Caesar. In their 
day a traveler could have seen fair cities like York, 
Lincoln, and London adorned with temples and baths. 
Here and there through the country appeared the splen- 
did villas of great Romans, and hard white roads ran 
through the land like threads of a spider web. The 
native Britons, too, who had once seemed to Caesar 
merely tattooed savages, were rapidly learning Roman 
ways, and when Christianity became the religion of 
Rome, Britain also shared its benefits. 

It is true that in the rugged hills of the north, in what 
is now Scotland, there still lived clans of sturdy fighters 
whom the Romans could not subdue. But to prevent 
these Picts and Scots, as they were called, from plundering 
the civilized Britons, the Romans set up a great wall, 
with forts and towers, which ran entirely across the 
island. With this protection, and guarded by Roman 
legions, Britain seemed safe. 

But when the Teutonic tribes began to carry fire and 
sword into Italy itself, Rome could no longer spare her 
soldiers to guard this distant island. To the dismay 
of the Britons, the Roman legions marched away and 
took ship for home. 

Upon this unfortunate people trouble soon came. 
In fierce plundering raids the Picts and Scots broke 
through the wall. The Britons, once so bold, knew no 
longer how to repel them. Whither should they turn 
for aid? 

In those days might have been seen from the head- 
lands of Britain the long boats of certain German tribes 
who lived across the North Sea, just where Denmark 
and Germany now come together. These piratical 



The Coming of the Teutons 



143 




ROMAN REMAINS IN GREAT BRITAIN 

The Lighthouse, Dover Castle 



people were the Angles, Saxons, and other tribes whom we 

usually speak of together as the Anglo-Saxons. They 

were much like other Teutonic 

tribes, but instead of invading 

the Roman Empire by land it 

was their custom to put to sea 

in their long ships and prowl 

about the coasts in quest of booty 

and adventure. What easy prey 

they would now find in Britain! 

In their trouble the foolish 
Britons, it is said, made the 
mistake of inviting a band of 
these fierce warriors, led by two 
tall chiefs called Hengist and 
Horsa, to land and help them against the Picts. For 
the Anglo-Saxons it was a pleasant task. They came 
on shore, drove back the Picts, and then, since they saw 
how green and fertile the land was, decided to stay. 
When the Britons objected they fell upon them and 
overthrew them with great slaughter. 

Soon other parties of Anglo-Saxons came, landing 
here and there upon the coast, and seizing the land. 
The Britons saw themselves despoiled of their country. 

But the Britons were naturally a brave people and 
soon plucked up courage. For one hundred and fifty 
years they struggled foot by foot and inch by inch with 
the Angles, who kept coming in ever increasing numbers. 
Sometimes the Britons were victorious, especially under 
the lead of a great prince whom in their stories they 
called King Arthur. But in the long run they could not 
resist the strong and sturdy Anglo-Saxons. So in the 



144 T^^^ Story of Old Europe and Young America 



end the whole country became Angle-Land, or, as we say, 
England. The tall, blue-eyed Teutonic invaders were 

the forefathers of the mod- 
ern English and, therefore, 
of many of us Americans. 

But how England was 
now changed ! The splendid 
Roman cities were ruined; 
villas and baths were gone. 
The Anglo-Saxons knew only 
how to live as they had 
done in their native Ger- 
man forests. No one could 
then foresee that these fierce 
people, in the course of 
centuries, were to become 
one of the leading civilized 
races of Europe. 

As for the Britons, those 
who were not slain or made slaves took refuge in the 
rough mountains along the west coast. Here their 
descendants still live. Since they could not understand 
their speech the Angles had called them Welsh, or 
"strangers," and we still name their country Wales. 
The Welsh have never entirely adopted English ways, 
nor have they ever quite forgotten the time w^hen all 
Britain was theirs. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. The ancient Teutons were tall, fair- 
haired barbarians. 2. They loved freedom so much that they 
would submit only to chiefs whom. they themselves chose, j. 
All important matters among them were decided by popular 




TYPICAL WELSH PEOPLE 



Hoiv the Teutons Learned from Rome 145 

meetings. 4. They held women in great respect. 5. Among 
the gods whom they worshiped, Woden and Thor were the 
most important. 6. When the Teutons first came into the 
Roman Empire they wrought great destruction. 7. Later 
they settled down and intermarried with the people whom 
they conquered. 8. Their coming nearly destroyed civiliza- 
tion, and brought the dark period called the Middle Ages. 
Q. One of the most important of the Teutonic peoples was the 
Anglo-Saxons, who occupied England. 

Study Questions, i. What kind of people were the early 
Teutons? 2. Name some of the Teutonic tribes, j. How 
did the Teutons show their love for freedom ? 4. Why did they 
dislike the Roman way of living? 5. Describe the religion of 
the early Germans. 6. How was it like that of the Greeks and 
Romans? 7. What did the Teutons do when they first came 
into Roman territory? 8. How did their conduct afterward 
change? g. Where did the Goths settle,? the Franks? the 
Lombards? 10. Why did not the Teutons carry on the 
Roman civilization? 11. What was the character of the Mid- 
dle Ages? 12. How did the island of Britain appear when it 
was ruled by the Romans? 13. Why did the Romans leave 
Britain? 14. What troubles came upon the Britons after the 
Romans went? 15. Who were the Anglo-Saxons? 16. Why 
did they decide to stay in Britain? 77. Tell how Britain 
became England. 18. What became of the Britons? 

Suggested Readings. Tappan, European Hero Stories, 
1-30, 54-60 and England's Story, 1-17; Harding, The Story of the 
Middle Ages; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle 
Ages; Button, Little Stories of Germany; Blaisdell, Stories 
from English History, 1-2 1; Yonge, Young Folks' History of 
England. 



HOW THE TEUTONS LEARNED FROM ROME 

59. Th£ Germans Become Christians. It took cen- 
turies for Europe to become once more as enlightened 
as it had been under the Romans. Only very gradually 
did the Teutonic conquerors lay aside their rough character 




146 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

and accept civilized life. That they ever did so was 

due mainly to Christianity. 

When the Roman Empire fell in 
ruin the Christian church did not 
fall with it. On the contrary, as 
the government became weak the 
wretched people looked more and 
more to their bishops and priests 
for help and guidance, and the in- 
fluence of the clergy increased. 
The Bishop of Rome, whom we call 
the pope, became more important 
than ever before. 

The simple-minded German war- 
riors, though often violent and 

From an old print ij_i j_11 J211J *j."l_ 

ROMAN BISHOP AND PRIEST ,N brutal, wcrc nevcrthelcss filled with 
THE TIME OK ST. AUGUSTINE j-ggpect for thc knowlcdgB of thc 

Romans and were especially struck with awe by the 
ceremonies of the Christian worship and the venerable 
appearance of its ministers. 

Some of the Teutonic tribes had been converted to 
Christianity even before the invasions began. All of 
them were won to the religion of Christ not long after- 
ward. So easily did they give up their old pagan ideas 
about Woden and Thor that it does not seem that their 
belief in their gods could ever have been very deep. 
How strange a fact indeed was this, that at the very 
moment when Rome was losing her rule she should give 
her religion to her conquerors! • 

Among those who accepted the new faith was Clovis, 
the famous king of the Franks, a leader known for his 
warlike ability. His wife, already a Christian, had often 



II 



How the Tentmis Learned from Rome 



147 



pleaded with him to accept Christ, but the fierce barbarian 
had always refused. At last, it is said, he engaged in a 
great battle with a strong tribe called the Alemanni. 
Before their onrush the warriors of Clovis gave way. 
It seemed that all was lost. Then at last Clovis called 
upon the name of Christ, promising that if the God of 
the Christians would give him victory he would become 
a Christian. Soon the Franks rallied, and the Alemanni 
were conquered. Thus, in fulfillment of his vow, Clovis 
was baptized a Christian and with him his whole army. 

60. How Missionaries Taught the Germans. Won- 
derful indeed is the story of the 
brave Christian missionaries, who, 
counting their lives as nothing in 
the service of God, preached the 
gospel to the Germans. The labors 
of many of these were directed by 
the powerful pope, Gregory the 
Great, one of the most remark- 
able men of this whole period. 
Though burdened with innumer- 
able duties and cares, he threw 
his whole soul into the work of 
converting the heathen. 

Having been struck by the 
beauty of some English slaves 
whom he saw exposed for sale in 
Rome, Gregory became especially 
eager to have Christianity preached 
to the Anglo-Saxons. Unable to go 
himself, he entrusted the mission to a brave man named 
Augustine, and forty companions. It was a perilous task. 




A PRANKISH WARRIOR 







148 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Yet as it turned out, the Anglo-Saxon king, Ethelbert, in 
whose territory they landed, received them kindly, for 

his good wife Ber- 
muIMli, ' "' ~"" i_^ - M ^Yi^^ ^ Prankish 

princess, was a 
follower of the 
new faith. Bear- 
ing before them a 
silver cross and a 
picture of Christ, 
and chanting their 
beautiful service, 

GREGORY THE GREAT VIEWING THE ANGLO-SAXON YOUTHS AUSUStlnC aud hlS 
EXPOSED FOR SALE IN THE SLAVE MARKET *^ 

companions came 
before the king and explained to him their religion. 
So impressed was he that he allowed them to remain 
and permitted them to worship in an old church which 
the Romans had built when they ruled Britain. Finally 
Ethelbert and most of his people were baptized. 

Then Augustine and his followers preached the w^ord 
of Christ in other parts of England, and in the end the 
whole island was won. 

Among all the missionaries one of the greatest was 
St. Boniface, himself an Englishman. Spurred on by 
zeal for Christ and encouraged by the pope, this fearless 
man penetrated into the dark forests of Germany and 
preached before the assemblies of fierce warriors. On 
one occasion he even hewed down a great oak which the 
people held sacred to Woden, and from its timbers 
constructed a Christian chapel. Awed by his majestic 
and venerable appearance, they dared not lift hand 
against him. Through his efforts much of Germany 



How the Teutons Learned from Rome 



149 



become Christianized. The peaceful missionary had 
conquered where even the legions of Caesar Augustus 
had met defeat. 

It must not be supposed, however, that when the 
fierce barbarians were baptized they at once gave up 
their cruel ways and became gentle and peace loving. 
Too often they merely called themselves Christians 
without understanding what the new religion really 
meant. For centuries many of the people of Europe 
remained almost as cruel and bloodthirsty as when they 
were pagans. Yet a beginning had been made, and 
amid all the strife 
the Christian 
church and its 
clergy never ceased 
to work for peace 
and righteousness. 

61. Who the 
Monks Were. 
Among the Chris- 
tian missionaries 
many belonged to 
the class of people 
called monks. 

We all know 
how^ hard it is to 
be good when there 
is so much in the 
world about us to 
make us think of 
evil. In the days when Christianity first came intox 
the Roman Empire, life was much worse than it is. 
11 




ST. AUGUSTINE PREACHING BEFORE KING ETHELBERT 



ISO 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



now. It seemed that everybody was cruel and faithless, 
and the whole world given over to wickedness. 

Many of the early Christians felt that the only way 
to be saved was to flee from all other men. Some took 
refuge in wild and lonely places, where they engaged in 
constant prayer. They lived on scanty food and wore 
the coarsest clothing that they might escape the sin of 
pride and vainglory. These men were hermits. 

But not many 
people could be her- 
mits. Others banded 
themselves together 
and thus went in 
little companies to 
dwell apart. With- 
drawing to some 
waste place, perhaps 
to a lonely island or 
to some wild moun- 
tain region, they con- 
structed with their 
.* ^i own hands a building 

W^*U^-^^%y^'^^ ^^^^^^ ^ monastery. 
^if'5>\®^^'. >-.^ Here, clad in coarse 



robes and bound by 
their rules to constant 
fasting and prayer, 
they lived secure, as 
they hoped, from 
many of the world's 
temptations. Men who thus withdrew from the world 
were called monks, but women were known as nuns. 




From an old German print 
ST. BONIFACE HEWING DOWN THE OAK 

Through the efforts of St. Boniface the ?nissionary 
movement, which had been largely independent 
of control, was brought under the 
direction of Rome ■ 



How the Teutons Learned from Rome 



151 




All their lives were governed by the rule of their 
society or "order." The most famous rule was that 
made by St. Benedict. 
According to this all the 
monks must live in abso- 
lute poverty. Whatever 
they had, even their coarse 
robes, belonged not to each 
monk but to the whole 
order. Monks must obey 
absolutely the "abbot , " 
that is, the brother whom 
they chose to be head of 
the monastery. And they 
must never marr3^ 

Each brother must 
spend much time in his 
own little cell. At certain 
hours, however, all engaged together in worship in the 
chapel. Other kinds of service were also required. 
Some time must be spent each day in study or in copy- 
ing useful books. At other hours the brothers must labor 
tilling and improving the land. 

Thus when other men were thinking of little but war 
and bloodshed, the faithful monks and nuns prayed 
and studied and labored. These humble people, clad in 
sackcloth, thinking not of themselves but only of their 
Heavenly Father, were doing more good than most of 
the kings with their crowns and swords. 

And so the monks prospered. Often their first rude 
structures grew into great and beautiful stone buildings. 
In the center of such a large monastery were the 



From an old pnnt 
BENEDICTINE OR BLACK MONKS 

From the beginning education has been one 0/ 
the principal works of the Benedictines 



152 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



"cloisters," open yards or courts with fine covered walks 
where the brothers could stroll up and down without 

being disturbed. Each 
monastery had its 
church, its library stored 
with precious books, and 
its lofty "chapter hall" 
where the monks held 
their meetings. Then 
there were the rows of 
"cells," or little rooms 
where the monks slept 
or retired for meditation 
in private. Besides these 
there were mills, work- 



shops, and other neces- 
sary buildings for labor of 
Indeed, 
many of the monasteries 

became more like villages than single buildings. 

Round about stretched the fertile fields which in the 

beginning the labor of the monks had won back from 

swamp or forest. 

By the end of 

the Middle Ages i?CVi-i "fW^ fP^^^^^W''^^ 

there was hardly 

a district in all 

Europe which 

could not point 

with pride to 




After an engraving in Green's History of England 
MONK COPYING MANUSCRIPT, 1200 A.D. 

Often Ihe monasteries were the only places of varioUS kiuds 
refuge, and here the writings of the Romans 
were copied and preserved 




MONKS TILLING THE SOIL 

As the monks were Ihe teachers of the world, agriculture 
as well as learning became their care 



some monastery famous for learning and piety. Among 
the most celebrated of all are the mighty house of Cluny 



How the Teutons Learned from Rome 



153 



in France, where the great pope, Gregory VII, was once 
a monk, and the very ancient monastery of St. Albans 
in England. 

The monks cared for the sick; they sheltered the 
poor; they entertained weary travelers. But this was 
not all. When hardly anybody else could even read, the 
monks studied the writings of the past and recopied them 
that they might be the better kept. They were almost 






4 > 



After the restoration of Kirkstall Abbey 
A NORMAN MONASTERY 

This monastery, near Leeds, in Yorkshire, England, dales from 1152 and was built 
by the Cistercians, otherwise known as the Gray or While Monks 

the only teachers of that dark and far-away time, and 
in the monasteries there were often famous schools. The 
monks kept records and wrote books, too, which tell us 
almost all we know about the Middle Ages. 

There were of course many bad monks who went to 
the monasteries because they were lazy or too cowardly 
to fight. But in the main the monks were the best and 
most intelligent men of that time. 



154 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

No wonder that they were the bravest missionaries 
and that from them the church often chose its popes and 
bishops. Even kings and rulers sometimes named them 
as their chief advisers. Without them, Hfe in the Middle 
Ages could hardly have gone on. 

62. Charles the Great Revives Civilization. Under 
the power of Christianity and its monks civilization in 
Europe began to revive somewhat. After three hundred 
years of barbarism and confusion, some signs of a desire 
for better things began to appear. This is shown espe- 
cially in the work of Charles the Great, or, as he is often 
called, Charlemagne. 

Among the Teutonic tribes which invaded the Roman 
Empire none were fiercer than the Franks. These 
people, whose early home was along the Rhine, had 
crossed that river and overrun Gaul, as France was then 
called. As they advanced all was ruin and destruction. 
But the Franks settled down to rule the country they 
had subdued and Clovis, their leader, had, as we have 
seen, accepted Christianity. Thus he became the friend 
and ally of the Pope of Rome. 

Nevertheless the Frankish kings so loved fighting 
that they engaged in constant wars with the rulers of- 
other tribes. There were bloody civil wars, too, among 
the Franks themselves. It is tiresome, indeed, to read 
of all the bloodshed of their early history. 

But the Franks were good fighters and gradually got 
the better of the tribes about them. No doubt this 
was partly due to the fact that they were friends of the 
pope, and so the Romans, who often disliked other German 
peoples, preferred to be ruled by them. So strong did 
they become that when the terrible Arabs from Africa 



How the Teutons Learned from Rome 155 

conquered Spain and invaded Gaul, the Franks, under 
their brave leader, Charles of the Hammer (Charles 
Martel), marched against them and defeated them. 

The grandson of this Charles Martel was Charles 
the Great. He was a tall and strongly-made man who 
like a true Frank loved riding, swimming, and all manly 
exercises. Though rather stout, none could excel him 
in such sports. He seemed tireless, and during all his 
long reign was always making distant expeditions at the 
head of his armies. 

Each spring he gathered his forces and toiled off 
through the rough forests on some great campaign. 
Again and again he marched into Germany, and subdued 
the still unconquered tribes of that region. On other 
occasions he journeyed into Italy, and protected his 
friend the pope against his enemies. The Arabs of 
Spain, too, felt his power. Before his death he had 
brought all the region now included in France, Belgium, 
the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, a part of Austria, 
northern Italy, and a little of Spain under his control. 
Since the days of Rome no such great power had been 
seen. 

It is not strange that a king of that warlike time 
should be a great conqueror. But it is strange that 
in his warlike and restless life Charles should find time 
for many other things besides war. 

Though he had little education, he was so fond of 
learning that during his meals he always had some one 
read to him. He could speak Latin and understand a 
little Greek. At great expense he invited scholars from 
all parts of Europe, like the Englishman Alcuin, to come 
to his court. 



156 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



He even had a school established in his own home, 
the famous School of the Palace, that his children and 
those of his great nobles might be properly taught. So 
fond of this school was Charles that whenever he was 
able he went to it himself and asked all kinds of ques- 
tions of the teachers. Charles even tried to learn to 
write, and used to keep his writing materials under 
his pillow when he slept that he might practice writing 
if he were wakeful. But the huge hand of the great 
warrior had hard work to guide the pen, and he could 
never do much more than sign his name. 

Charles encouraged 
^li^p?: the clergy to study 
that they might teach 
correctly the word of 
God, and helped them 
to establish schools in 
many of the principal 
cities. So anxious was 
he that everybody 
should learn that he 
commanded every 
priest to call together 
the boys of his neigh- 
borhood and to teach 
them to read. It may 
seem odd to us that 
no ruler had thought 
of this before, but the 
warlike kings of that 
day had in mind only conquest and slaughter. 

The Christian religion, too, Charles loved, though his 




J'rom an old prmt 
CHARLES THE GREAT AT THE SCHOOL OF 
THE PALACE 




THE EMPIRE OF C 




.RI.ES THE GREAT 



Copyright, iqij, by Rand Mc.Vally <&■ Company 



How the Teutons Learned from Rome 



157 



way of advancing it was a rough one. At the point of 
the sword he forced thousands of the barbarous warriors 
whom he conquered to , ^^---^ _ 

wade into rivers and be 
baptized by his priests. 
What a ridiculous picture 
those old heathen must 
have made as they 
splashed unwillingly into 
the water before the wea- 
pons of Charles' soldiers! 
No wonder that the con- 
verts had a strange idea 
of the Religion of Peace! 
Yet Charles did more 
than this. He ordered 
conquered tribes to build 
churches, and sent priests 
and monks to live among 
them. Thus as years passed 
they were gradually taught what Christianity means. 
As Charles' power grew it seemed more and more 
as if the good old days of the Roman Empire were 
coming back again. So when Charles chanced, on one 
Christmas Day, to be in the city of Rome, an inspiring 
thing happened. As Charles was kneeling before the 
altar of the great church, the pope, clad in the stately gar- 
ments of his office, approached, bearing a crown. This 
he placed upon the head of the Prankish king and in 
solemn tones declared him Emperor of Rome. (800 a.d.) 
Then all the people shouted, ' ' Long life and victory 
to the mighty Charles, the great and pacific emperor 




CHARLES THE GREAT INFLICTING BAPTISM 
UPON THE SAXONS 

After a picture by A. de Neuville in 
Guizot's "History of France" 



158 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




THE POPE CROWNS CHARLEMAGNE 

From the fresco (igth cent.) in Hotel de Ville, Aix-la- 
Chapelle, designed by Rethel, executed by Kehrcn 



of the Romans, crowned of God!" And outside the 
church the rugged soldiers of the king took up the cry, 

63. The Coming 
of the Northmen. 
But the good order 
and peace of the Ro- 
man Empire had not 
come back to stay. 
While Charles the 
Great lived all went 
well, but only a 
mighty ruler could 
govern all the differ- 
ent races and peoples 
he had conquered. 
His son and grand- 
sons were not equal to the task. The latter even divided 
the empire among themselves, and then fought fiercely 
with one another. They could not understand what 
Charles had tried to do. 

A few of Charles' schools remained; the monks 
still studied and labored; but Europe went back into 
confusion and bloodshed. To make things still worse, 
a new and terrible danger appeared. This was the 
Northmen. 

Not all the Teutonic tribes had yet been Christianized. 
Far to the north in Scandinavia, in the countries we now 
call Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, still lived thousands 
of tall, blond warriors who worshiped Odin and Thor 
and followed the fierce customs of their ancestors. Cut 
off by the sea from the rest of Europe, these Northmen 
had scarcely been heard of. 



How the Teutons Learned from Rome 



159 



But since they lived by the sea, those hardy people 
naturally became sailors, and launching forth in their 
swift black vessels they began to venture upon long 
voyages. The leaders of these expeditions were called 
"Vikings" because they were lords of the "Viks," or 
long, narrow bays of the rugged northern coast. 

Though the ships of the Vikings were only open boats 
driven by oar as well as by sail, they were such bold 
sailors and were so strong and hardy that they often 
dared to make voyages thousands of miles from home. 
The Vikings did not fear the fiercest tempests, and loved 
danger and adventure as be- 
fitting brave men. 

But the poor coast people 
of France and England were 
indeed terrified as they saw 
the Viking ships approach. 
Trembling, they looked upon 
the black raven painted upon 
their sails, the prows rudely 
hewn into the forms of dragons, 
the rows of glittering shields 
hung along the bulwarks, and 
the crowd of strong fighting 
men eager for booty. For the 
Northmen were pirates. 

Sailing up some stream or 
bay, they would land and, 
leaving a guard at the boats, 
scurry off across the country. 
Woe betide the region to which they came, for they left 
behind only smoking ruins. Everything of value they 




A NORSE VIKING 



i6o The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



carried ofif to their ships, and those who opposed them 
they slew. Particularly cruel were they to the monks, for 

they hated Christianity. 
Vainly did kings 
and rulers try to with- 
stand them. But be- 
fore they could gather 
their armies the North- 
men were gone, and 
if by any chance these 
pirates were cornered 
they were so strong and 
fought so fiercely that 
they often cut down 
many times their own 
numbers. Villages, 
churches, monasteries, 
and even cities disap- 
peared in flame and 
smoke. Whole districts 
were ruined. 

France suffered dreadfully. More and more Vikings 
came each year. Finally a great band led by a gigantic 
chief named Rollo forced a weak descendant of Charles 
the Great to give over to them a whole district of the 
finest part of northern France. 

This surrender seemed a terrible misfortune; but in 
the long run it did not prove so. These Northmen 
now settled down in the region they had conquered. 
Gradually they gave up their fierce customs. They 
married the women of the country and learned to speak 
French instead of their rude northern tongue. In the 




ROLLO AND HIS MEN PLUNDERING A TOWN 



How the Teutons Learned from Rome i6i 

end they became practically Frenchmen. Yet even 
among the French they were always noted for their 
courage in war, their energy, and their love of adventure. 
So Normandy, as their province was called, instead of 
being ruined forever became one of the most prosperous 
parts of all France. We shall see the Normans again, 
doing great things in England and elsewhere. 

But not all the Vikings sailed southward. Others 
went on plundering expeditions to Scotland and Ireland, 
and finally a hardy band, buffeting the great billows of 
the Atlantic in their small open boats, reached distant 
Iceland. Here many Northmen settled. In time these 
skillful sailors reached ice-bound Greenland also, and 
some of them dwelt there. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. Though the Middle Ages was a 
time of darkness and bloodshed, the Teutons gradually became 
civilized. 2. This result was due mainly to the Christian 
church. J. Among those who helped to win the barbarians to 
Christianity, especial credit belongs to Gregory the Great and 
to St. Boniface. 4. The world owes much to the monks of 
this period. 5. The monasteries were practically the only 
schools, libraries, hospitals, and inns. 6. Charles the Great, 
ruler of the Franks, revived learning and spread Christianity. 
7. As a reward he was crowned Emperor of Rome by the 
pope. 8. When Charles died his empire was broken up and 
Europe fell back into confusion, p. Conditions were made 
much worse by the attacks of the Northmen. 

Study Questions, i. Why did the overthrow of the Roman 
government increase the power of the church? 2. How did 
the Teutons feel when they saw Christian priests and mission- 
aries? J. Tell the story of the conversion of Clovis. 4. Tell 
the story of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. 5. Who was 
St. Boniface? 6. Why is he called one of the bravest of 
Christian missionaries ? 7. Who were the monks ? 8. Why did 



i62 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

people wish to be monks? q. What did monks do? lo. 
Describe a flourishing monastery of the Middle Ages. ii. 
What have the monks left us that is valuable? 12. Tell some- 
thing of the eariy history of the Franks. 13. What kind of 
a man was Charles the Great? 14. What countries did he 
conquer? 75. How did Charles show his love for learning? 
16. How did he help to spread Christianity? ly. Tell the 
story of Charles' coronation as emperor. 18. What were 
the 'results of Charles' death? ig. What kind of people were 
the Northmen? 20. Give an account of one of their raids 
as if you had seen it. 21. Why was it so hard to drive the 
Northmen away? 22. Tell the story, of their settlement in 
Normandy. 2j. Tell the story of their voyages to the Atlantic. 

Suggested Readings. Tappsin, European Hero Stories, 38- 
53, 81-86, 94-98, and England's Story, 17-24; Harding, The Story 
of the Middle Ages; Yonge, Young Folks' History of England, 
and Young Folks' History of France, 61-106; Einhard, Life of 
Charlemagne; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle 
Ages; Hall, Viking Tales; Mabie, Norse Stories. 



HOW ENGLAND WAS MADE 

64. Alfred the Great Withstands the Danes. The 

country of Europe which suffered most from the North- 
men was England. It w-as right in the path of these 
savage sea-rovers, and offered an easy prey. The Anglo- 
Saxons who had formerly conquered the country were 
not all at first subject to one ruler. On the contrary, 
they had founded numerous little kingdoms which en- 
gaged in constant warfare with each other and with the 
Britons. Because seven of these little states were 
especially important, this far-away time of bloodshed 
and confusion has sometimes been called the period of 
the Saxon "Heptarchy," or seven kingdoms. 

Not until after more than two centuries of savage 
conflict was the whole country brought under control 



How England was Made 



163 



of one king. But finally Egbert, originally ruler only of 
the little state of Wessex, conquered all his rivals and 
made himself first 
king of all Eng- 
land. Before the 
new nation could 
grow really strong, 
however, the 
Northmen ap- 
peared with their 
long ships and 
shining weapons. 
Since most of 
the Vikings who 
attacked that 
country were from 
Denmark, the 
English usually 
called them "the 
Danes." That 
they did not de- 
stroy the English 
utterly was due 
partly to a wise 
and strong king 
named Alfred. 

To this day Englishmen love the stories which have 
come down regarding him, for he was good and clever, 
as well as brave. Even when he was a little fair-haired 
prince Alfred loved learning, but to his great sorrow he 
could have no good teachers, for the Danes had destroyed 
nearly all the monasteries. Yet he learned all he could, 




THE HEPTARCHY 



The period of the Heptarchy was between the coming of 

the Anglo-Saxons in 440 and the union of the 

kingdoms under Egbert in 828 



i64 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



and when his mother offered a beautiful book of poems 
as a prize to the one of her children who could first recite 
them, Alfred, though he was the youngest prince, easily 
won. He learned also to play well on musical instru- 
ments, and, since all his life he loved to read and to think, 
he finally became an excellent scholar. 

When he grew up Alfred helped his elder brother, 
who had now become king, to fight the cruel Danes. 
Again and again they struggled bravely in battle, but they 
were often beaten. When the brother died and Alfred 
became king (871 a.d.), the Danes were masters of the 

whole country and Alfred 
had to take refuge in 
the woods and swamps. 
Another man might have 
fled from the land, but 
Alfred, with true English 
pluck, would not give 
up the struggle. 

Some amusing stories 
are told of 'Alfred at this 
time. One tells how the 
king once took refuge in 
the hut of a poor peasant. 
The peasant woman, who 
of course did not know 
him, set him to watch 
the cakes she was cook- 
ing. But Alfred, busy 
repairing his trusty 
weapons, forgot all about the cakes and soon she smelled 
them burning. Whereupon the peasant's wife scolded 




ALFRED AND HIS MEN DEFEATING 
THE DANES 



How England was Made 



i6s 



Angles(| 1 

Saxons'! 1 

Danes.. IHiilPliilill 
Britons I '.I 

GERMAN OCEAN 

OR 

NORTH SEA 



the great king soundly, telling him that though he would 

not mind the cakes he was ready to eat them fast enough. 

Another story 



tells how Alfred, 
disguised as a 
wandering musi- 
cian, went boldly 
into the camp of 
the Danes and 
amused them by 
playing on his 
harp, while he saw 
how their fortifi- 
cations were built. 
At last Alfred's 
time came. Rais- 
ing aloft the old 
banner of his 
people, with its 
figure of the 
white horse, he 
summoned all 
true Englishmen 
to his side. Over- 




THE DANELAGH (OR DANELAW) 



joyed to see their king, whom many had thought dead, 
they eagerly ralhed about him. Speedily they marched 
against the Vikings, and before the fury of their attack 
the hitherto unconquered Danes gave way. They fled to 
their fortified camp,, but Alfred besieged it and starved 
them into surrender. 

The Danes had to acknowledge Alfred as their over- 
lord and be baptized Christians. He allowed them to 
12 



1 66 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

settle peaceably in the northern part of England, but 
there was to be no more plundering or bloodshed. Be- 
cause it was occupied by the Danes this region was known 
at that time as the Danelagh, and many of its present 
people are descended from the Vikings. 

In spite of this victory England was not yet secure. 
Later other Viking armies came. But Alfred got the 
better of them all. This wise king saw that the proper 
thing to do was to fight the Danes on the sea, for if they 
once landed in England they would do great harm, 
even though beaten in the end. So he had war vessels 
built, and sometimes conquered them in naval battles. 
Even to this day, when England is so proud of her great 
fleet of battleships, Englishmen like to remember that 
it was Alfred who built their first navy. 

65. Alfred's Works of Peace. Alfred is remembered 
for many other reasons than because he was a great 
soldier. When peace came he thought again of schools 
and education. Because he had had so much trouble 
himself to learn, he wanted to make things easier for 
others, so like Charles the Great he invited scholars to 
come to England and had schools established. He did 
even more. Up to that time men had thought that all 
books should be in Latin, since it was the language of 
Rome. But Alfred held that English, too, was a noble 
tongue, and he felt that even those who did not under- 
stand Latin should know as much as possible. So he 
encouraged the writing of books in English, and himself 
helped to translate writings from J^atin into his own 
language. 

Alfred not only ruled kindly and justly but revised 
the laws of the kingdom and made them much better. 



How England was Made 



167 



He was interested in all that went on, and even sent two 
bold sea captains to make new discoveries in geography. 

But Alfred is remembered most 
of all because he was a good man. 
He never willingly injured even his 
meanest subject; he always thought 
of the good of his people before his 
own advantage ; he labored constantly 
that England might be happy. No 
wonder that even one thousand years 
after his death the grateful English 
people set up to his memory a beau- 
tiful statue. It stands in Winchester, 
his ancient capital city, and repre- 
sents the brave old king, sword in 
hand, just as he led his faithful people 
in their struggle for freedom. What 
George Washington is to us Ameri- 
cans, Alfred the Great is to our 
English cousins. 

After Alfred was gone, the Danes 
came again and brought new destruction. They even 
conquered England and ruled it for a short time. But in 
the end the English got back the power and reestablished 
their own kings. 

66. The Normans Conquer England. Thus England 
had in turn been conquered by the Romans, the Anglo- 
Saxons, and the Danes. Each had brought with them 
many new things. 

Though the Romans were the most civilized, they 
had, owing to circumstances, left little to tell of their 
visit, — only here and there a crumbling wall, or a ruined 




STATUE OF ALFRED 
AT WINCHESTER 



1 68 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




From the Bayeux tapestry, Bayeux, France 
NORMAN KNIGHTS ON HORSEBACK 



building. The Anglo-Saxons had given England most. 
They had brought their race to people the country in 
place of the 
Britons, their 
language to be 
the beginning of 
our modern Eng- 
lish, and their 
free German no- 
tions about how 
people should choose their king and govern themselves. 
The Danes had not ruled long, yet many Danes settled 
in northern England. They intermarried with the Eng- 
lish and made the race still more sturdy and warlike. 
But before England could become the modern country 
which we know she had to be conquered yet again. 

We have seen how it was that the Normans came to 
live in northern France. Here they soon learned French 
civilization and French customs, but they remained a 
restless, energetic people, always looking for some new 
exploit. Normandy was just across the British Channel 
from England, and the Normans knew how weak the 
country still was. 

When one of the English kings died without a son, the 
leading men of England chose Harold, a powerful noble, to 
be their ruler. But William, Duke of Normandy, whom 
men have always called William the Conqueror, declared 
the late king had promised him the throne. He gathered 
an army of adventurous Normans, and sailing across the 
channel, just as Julius Caesar had done so long before, 
landed near Hastings (1066 a.d.). 

Here was fought a famous battle. The Normans 



How England was Made 



169 



had many advantages over the EngHsh. They understood 
how to fight on horseback and how to make skillful use 
of archery. Moreover, they had William to lead them. 
Yet all day long the English stood stubbornly together 
on a hilltop and beat back every attack with their swords 
and axes. At last William made use of a trick. He had 
his men pretend to retreat. Harold had been wounded, 
and there was no one to direct the English. They 




After picture by A. de Neuville in Guizot'a Hislorv of France 
THE LANDING OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR AT SENLAC NEAR HASTINGS 

foolishly broke their ranks and rushed in wild disorder 
after their enemies. Then, at a signal from William, the 
Normans wheeled about and rode down their scattered 
foes. When night came the English army was destroyed, 
and Harold lay dead upon the field. All England speedily 
submitted to William. 

William richly rewarded his followers. He made many 
of them nobles, and gave them great estates in the con- 
quered country. Here they built castles and lorded it 



lyo The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



over the Anglo-Saxons. Though the latter often rose 
in rebellion, they could never get rid of William and 
his descendants. The Normans had come to England to 
stay and to rule. 

In spite of the cruelty which they sometimes practiced, 
the Norman conquest was really a good thing for England. 
The Normans knew more than the English. They 
brought with them from France architects and masons 
who knew how to build stone churches and castles to 
take the place of the old wooden buildings of the Anglo- 
Saxons. Their merchants traded back and forth with 
France and other parts of Europe. Moreover, the 
Normans were more lively and quick-witted than the 

slow, plodding English. 
Thus when, in the course 
of years, the two nations 
merged into one, the new 
English people were 
brighter and more clever 
than the old Anglo- 
Saxons. 

The Normans brought 
into England a new 
language also, for they 
spoke a kind of French. 
This fact for a long 
while kept the two 
peoples apart. But 
gradually the descend- 
ants of the Normans 
learned to speak like the other people of the country, 
and the Anglo-Saxons began to use a great many 




THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. CUTHBERT AT 
DURHAM 

A fine example of the Norman style 
of architecture 



How England was Made 



171 




A NORMAN CASTLE 

This is the While Tower, the famous Keep of 
the Tower of London, built in 1078 



Norman words. The new language made in this way is 
the EngHsh which we speak. It is very different from the 
old tongue spoken by 
Alfred the Great, or 
by Harold. 

The Normans 
were so restless that 
even after the Con- 
quest they wanted 
to keep on fighting. 
But WilHam was a 
stern man who knew 
how to keep his un- 
ruly people in order. 

The Conqueror was of moderate height only, but 
very heavily built and so strong of arm that no man 
could draw his bow. He was dignified in manner, but 
his appearance was marred by his stoutness, for as he 
grew older he became fatter and fatter. William's 
countenance was fierce. Though to good men he was 
mild and just, his temper was so terrible that when he 
was aroused no one dared oppose him. Those who tried 
to withstand him, he punished with awful cruelty. 

In most respects William was a good king. He tried 
to rule justly, and in his time no man dared slay another 
or do him wrong. But the king had great faults. Money 
he loved so much that he sometimes did wicked things 
to gain it, and he was so fond of hunting that he laid 
waste a whole district of the country that his deer and 
other game might not be disturbed. A quaint old writer 
said of William, "As greatly did he love the tall deer as 
if he were their father." 



172 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

67. How Henry II Kept Order in England. When 
William was gone, England had cause for sorrow. His 
sons could not keep order with the same firmness and 
strength. When they too died, terrible times came. 
While the Conqueror's grandson and granddaughter 
contended for the crown, the fierce Norman nobles did 
as they pleased. Riding forth from the strong castles 
which they had built, they robbed and murdered the 
people. It seemed almost as if the dreadful days of the 
Danes had come again. 

But when England was almost ruined, Henry II, 
great-grandson of the old Norman, became king. He was 
the right man for the times. Stockily built, with florid 
face, red hair, bull neck, and bow legs, Henry was not 
handsome. His eyes, always shifting from one thing 
to another, showed how restless and active was his mind. 
He cared little for dress, but loved work, never being 
happier than when actively carrying out some new plan. 
Though Henry could fight well he did not love war, but 
preferred to gain his purposes by other means. To have 
his way he would stoop to any trick. Yet if Henry was 
not noble in appearance and character, still he was one 
of England's greatest kings. Better than any one of his 
day he saw what England needed, and knew how to bring 
order and justice to his country. 

First he put down the Norman barons with a strong 
hand. He destroyed their castles and sent away the 
soldiers they had hired. Then England had peace. 

Among any people it is of great importance how 
wrongdoers are found out, brought to trial, and punished. 
To Henry it seemed that great improvements could be 
made in the methods employed in England. 



How England was Made 



173 




From a 15th cent. MS.; after Lacroix 
THE ORDEAL OF TRIAL BY COMBAT 



Very childish indeed were the methods men used in 
those rough days. If a man were accused of a crime, he 
must bring all the people 
he could to swear he was 
innocent. If he could 
not bring enough to sat- 
isfy the court he must 
stand what was called 
the "ordeal." 

There were many 
kinds of ordeals. Some- 
times the accused man 
must plunge his arm into 
a kettle of boiling water 
and take out a ring. 
Then his arm was tied up and if, after three days, it was 
seen to be healing, he was declared innocent. If the 
wound was inflamed he was held guilty. Another ordeal 
was that of cold water. The accused person was bound 
hand and foot and cast into a pond. If he floated, his 
guilt was regarded as proved; if he sank, he was drawn 
out as innocent. 

Another form was to build two great fires and make 
the person on trial run between them. He proved the 
charge false by escaping with his life. A very simple 
ordeal was sometimes used when it was said a person 
had told a falsehood. He was made to swallow a huge 
piece of bread and cheese. If it stuck in his throat the 
lie was proved. 

But the fierce Norman nobles loved best "trial by 
battle." Accuser and accused were given equal weapons 
and, while the judges stood by to see fair play, fought 



174 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

out their quarrel foot to foot and eye to eye. Priests, 
women, and others who could not fight were allowed to 
choose "champions" to do battle for them. The defeated 
party was declared guilty, and if he was not slain in the 
combat, was punished. 

Men thought that God would protect the innocent 
and give them strength to conquer their adversaries. 
But we can see now that the ordeals were cruel and 
often unjust. Only very ignorant people could believe 
in them. 

Henry II improved methods greatly. He sent his 
royal judges to travel about England and hold court in 
all the chief cities. When the royal judge arrived, sixteen 
worthy men of the place were chosen, who gave him the 
names of any persons whom they believed had broken 
the law. These sixteen were called the "Grand Jury." 
Those whom they "indicted" were arrested and brought 
before the judge to be tried 

The king did not indeed forbid ordeals, in which 
everybody believed, but he sometimes allowed another 
kind of trial. Twelve other men of the neighborhood 
were then chosen to examine into all the facts and decide 
whether the accused man had done wrong or not. Wise 
people soon found "trial by jury" much better than the 
old way. 

The courts in England and America now generally 
use trial by jury. We should think it very wicked to let 
some bad man escape punishment simply because he 
was strong and a good fighter. All thoughtful people 
are grateful to wise old Henry II because he did so much 
to give us better ways of securing justice. 

But not all the people of England liked so strong a 



How England was Made 



175 



king. The great officers of the church especially felt 
that they ought not to be tried, like other people, before 
the royal judges. Chief among them was the great 
Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas a Becket, the highest 
officer in all the Church of England. So angry did 
Henry become with him that one day he said in fury 
that he wished some one would rid him of this insolent 






I !M n4r-> 



CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL 

This cathedral was begun in the twelfth century and completed in the two following 

centuries. It stands near the site of the first Christian church 

built in Saxon England 

man. Four of his soldiers, hearing his words, leaped 
upon their horses and galloped off in a cloud of dust to 
Canterbury. They found Becket before one of the 
altars of his church, and cut him down with their great 
swords. 

How bitterly did Henry regret what he had said in 
anger! To show his sorrow he went to Canterbury, 
knelt before the tomb of the archbishop, and had men 



176 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



beat him on the bare back. Too late he saw that even 

a great king, carried off by passion, can do a terrible 

wrong. 

68. King John and Magna Carta. Though they 

sometimes made mistakes, William the Conqueror and 

Henry II were good kings and usually tried to be just. 

But England sometimes had wicked rulers. King John, 

a son of Henry II, was the worst. 

Though fierce, he was also cowardly, and he would 

never keep a promise. Worst of all, he was a tyrant 

who cared nothing for the good of his people. 

When a young man he fought against his father and 

helped to bring poor old 
Henry to a sorrowful death. 
Then he played traitor to 
his elder brother, the fa- 
mous King Richard of the 
Lion Heart. When John 
had at last become king he 
caused his own nephew to 
be shamefully slain. 

From the days of Wil- 
liam the Conqueror every 
king of England had also 
been ruler of Normandy 
in France. But John had 
a war with the King of 
France, was disgracefully 
defeated, and lost all his 
possessions in that country. 
When the pope named the wise and brave Stephen 

Langdon to be Archbishop of Canterbury, John, who 




KING JOHN RECEIVING FORMAL NOTICE OF 

HIS EXCOMMUNICATION FROM 

THE CHURCH 



How England was Made 177 

wanted to rob the churches, swore in fury that he should 
never enter the country. In reply the pope closed every 
church in England. No bells rang to call the people to 
prayer or to service on the Sabbath. No priest could 
preach. The dead could not be buried ; the living might 
not marry. Every church stood silent, and grass grew 
about the doors. 

People cried out against the king, but John only 
laughed. Yet when the pope declared that John was no 
longer king, and called upon the ruler of France to take 
his place, John, terrified, gave in and weakly begged the 
pope for mercy. He agreed to be his subject, and to 
send him every year a large sum of money. Such con- 
duct was shameful. 

Most cruel was John to his own subjects. He let 
them be wrongfully imprisoned and took their money 
contrary to law. At last the barons and people could 
stand it no longer. They remembered that their fore- 
fathers had been free men and had had rights. 

So they demanded that John should not act against 
the old customs of England. When he paid no attention 
they gathered an army and marched against him. Their 
leader was the sturdy Stephen Langdon who, though an 
archbishop, felt that it was his duty to fight for the right. 

Few would take up arms for the king, and he was 
helpless. On a meadow called Runny mede beside the 
Thames River, "where the rushes grow green," John met 
his rebellious subjects. 

Here took place a remarkable scene. Round about 
on the green turf stood the barons, with the great arch- 
bishop at their head. Their faces were grimx and deter- 
mined. Swords and spears were in their hands, and the 




178 



KIXG JOHN SIGNING MAGNA CARTA 



How England was Made 179 

light gleamed from their clanking armor. Above waved 
the banners which they had carried in many a battle. 
Before them was the cruel king, clad in his royal robes 
but trying hard to conceal his rage and fear. 

Sternly the barons told John that he must sign a 
great document or charter in which they had written 
down all the rights belonging to the people of England. 
There was no way out. John wrote his name at the 
bottom, and put on his royal seal. Then in turn the 
archbishop and all the great barons signed and attached 
their seals. (12 15 a.d.) 

No wonder that Englishmen love "Magna Carta," 
the Great Charter. It proved that they were free. It 
says that no one shall be imprisoned without proper trial, 
and that no money shall be taken unless with the consent 
of the Great Council of the kingdom. There in black 
and white are set down all the other liberties of the 
English people. The great nobles had forced the king to 
sign it, but they did not forget the other classes. The 
freedom of the towns and of the merchants was secured, 
as well as their own. 

Though kings have often tried to break this charter, 
Englishmen and Americans who are their descendants 
have never forgotten it. Wherever in the whole wide 
world Englishmen have gone, — in the United States, 
in the woods of Canada, in the bush of Australia, in the 
jungle of Africa, — it is still the law. 

John was furious over what had happened. When 
the barons were gone, it is said that in his terrible anger 
he frothed at the mouth, rolled on the floor, and with his 
teeth gnashed the rushes which in those days took the place 
of a carpet. But he could not undo what he had done. 



i8o The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

As soon as he had a chance this faithless king tried 
to break the Great Charter, but he could not make his 
subjects forget that he had signed it. 

The rest of his reign was of course filled with wicked- 
ness and confusion. And he came to a pitiful end. 
White he was crossing a river with his army the tide rose 
quickly and some of his men were drowned. That night 
he took a huge supper of peaches and new ale. In the 
morning John was found dead. 

69. How Parliament Grew. Magna Carta did a great 
deal to keep the English king from acting unjustly to his 
subjects. But something more was needed before the peo- 
ple themselves could have much share in making the laws. 

In England to-day the body of men who make the 
laws is called Parliament. Parliament is very old, but 
it was not always called by that name. When the 
forefathers of the English, the Anglo-Saxons, still lived 
in the forests of Germany, all the warriors of a tribe used 
to meet in council to talk over and decide matters. This 
"folk-moot" was really the beginning of Parliament, and 
the first Parliament House was no doubt only an open 
place in the forest where the tall warriors assembled and, 
amid the clashing of weapons, shouted out their consent 
or disapproval of the proposals of the chiefs. 

Later, when the Anglo-Saxons had conquered England, 
they still had such meetings. But now it was no longer 
possible for all the warriors to assemble in one place. So 
the king summoned only some of the most powerful and 
wise men. Thus the old "folk-moot" changed into the 
"Witan," or "Council of the Wise Men," and the king 
was not supposed to take any important step without 
asking their advice. 



How England was Made i8i 

Though William the Conqueror was a Norman and 
also a man who always liked to do as he pleased, he had 
still tried to keep as many of the old English customs 
as he could. He knew it would be easier to rule the 
conquered Anglo-Saxons if he did it in the ways to which 
they were accustomed. So when any great thing was 
to be done, he still summoned leading men to meet with 
him in council. Thither came the heads of the church, 
the great archbishops and bishops in their priestly robes, 
as well as the powerful nobles or barons to whom he had 
given great estates. The Normans called such meetings 
at first the "Great Council," and later "Parliament." 

Even the great barons did not as yet often venture to 
oppose the will of strong kings like the Conqueror and 
Henry U. But we have seen how they dared to withstand 
King John and how, clad in their suits of mail, and with 
their swords in their hands, they had met him at Runny- 
mede and forced him to grant the Great Charter. Among 
many other things the Charter said that the king must not 
take his subjects' money except by the consent of the 
Great Council. When he wanted to collect heavier taxes, 
he must call Parliament. 

This was an important gain for England. But 
Parliament was still made up only of the nobles and 
great officers of the church. Ordinary citizens had no 
share in it. 

A great change was at hand, however. The son of 
John, King Henry HI, proved to be not much better 
than his father. He was indeed not so fierce and cruel, 
but he wanted his own way and would not rule wisely. 
He spent money foolishly, and liked foreigners better 
than Englishmen. To some worthless foreign favorites 
13 



i82 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



he gave high offices and great estates. Worse than all, 
King Henry would not remember his promises or keep 
the Great Charter. 

But the English barons remembered how they had 
curbed King John. Led by a strong and brave man, 
Earl Simon de Montfort, they rebelled. Of this true 
hero we do not know much, save that he had been born 
in France and had come to England after his marriage 
with a rich EngUsh lady. But though England was 
only his adopted country, he was a true Englishman in 
spirit and was wise and good. Earl Simon and his 
barons overthrew and captured the king in a battle. 

Since King Henry was in his hands, the earl became 
for a time the real ruler. Soon Simon called a Parliament. 
But it was a Parliament of a new kind, for he summoned 

not merely the great lords but 
also men who were to speak and 
act for the people. From each 
county in England, and from 
each city, two men were chosen 
to come to Parliament as repre- 
sentatives of the "commons," or 
persons who were not barons or 
bishops. To gain a voice in 
Parliament meant as much for 
the people of England as to 
gain Magna Carta itself. No 
wonder that Earl Simon is counted 
among the great men of Eng- 
lish history. (1265 a.d.) 
But it was not yet certain that Parliament would 
remain as Simon had arranged it. King Henry was 




EARL SIMON DE MONTFORT 

From an engraving after the painting 
by C. Jacquand 



How England was Made 183 

indeed too weak to struggle with the great earl, but his 
son, Prince Edward, was a brave soldier and a good 
general. When the war between the king and the barons 
began again, Prince Edward led the royal army with great 
skill. Many of de Montfort's men deserted him, and he 
was finally forced to give battle to the prince when certain 
to be beaten. Fighting to the last, "in a crashing forest 
of the foe," the brave old earl fell, and all his bravest 
friends fell around him. 

But though Simon de Montfort died his work lived. 
When Prince Edward became King Edward I he proved 
as good a ruler as he was soldier. Instead of driving 
the "commons" from Parliament, he saw that it was best 
to keep them there. He was wise enough to feel that he 
could rule England more easily with the approval of the 
people than against their wishes. 

So it came about that Parliament had two "houses," 
— the House of Lords, where the nobles sat, and the House 
of Commons, where met the representatives of the people. 
For a law to be passed both houses had to agree. Though 
many hard struggles still lay before England, she was 
happy indeed, compared with other nations, to have 
received so good a form of government. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. England was almost ruined by the 
Danes. 2. Alfred the Great defeated them and saved his 
country, j. He also encouraged learning and the establish- 
ment of schools. 4. Later England was conquered by the 
Normans, led by William the Conqueror. 5. Many Normans 
came to live in England and brought new ideas. 6. The 
Norman nobles were fierce fighters and often would not obey 
the king. 7. Henry II restored order. 8. He established 
better courts and methods of trial. 9. King John was a tyrant 



184 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

and oppressed his people. 10. He was forced to sign Magna 
Carta. 11. Simon de Montfort and King Edward I estab- 
lished the House of Commons. 12. Thus the English people 
had a share in their own government. 

Study Questions, i. What was there about the position of 
England which caused the Northmen to go there? 2. Tell 
about the youth of Alfred the Great, j. Why did the English 
fight bravely under his leadership ? 4. Why was it a bold thing 
to try to fight the Danes on the sea? 5. Make a list of the 
ways in which Alfred tried to benefit England. 6. How did 
he resemble George Washington? 7. Name the conquests of 
England, and give at least one result of each. 8. Who were 
the Normans? g. Why did they invade England? 10. How 
did William the Conqueror show that he was a good general? 
II. How did the Normans improve England? 12. What was 
their chief fault? 13. What kind of man was King William 
the Conqueror? 14. Why did England regret his death? 75. 
In what way was Henry H like William, and how was he 
different? 16. Why does it make a great difference in any 
country how trials are carried on? 77. Tell about the 
"ordeals." 18. Explain how Henry improved matters, ig. 
Why did Archbishop a Becket oppose the king? 20. Tell the 
story of his death. 21. Make a list of t^^rannical acts of King 
John. 22. Tell the story of Magna Carta as if you had been 
one of the barons. . 23. What differences does the signing of 
Magna Carta make to Americans? 24. Explain how Parlia- 
ment grew in such a way as to show the different forms it took. 

25. Why were Englishmen not satisfied with King Henry HI? 

26. Who was Earl Simon de Montfort? 27. Tell what he did 
for England. 28. Why did Edward I keep the House of 
Commons? 2g. What do we Americans call our Parliament? 

Suggested Readings. Mowry, First Steps in the History 
oj England, 38-48, 49-70, 82-97; Tappan, England's Story, 24- 
93; Blaisdell, Stories from English History, 27-77; Dickens, A 
Child's History of England (Scribners, N.Y., 1910), 18-24, 50- 
63, 89-110, 122-168; Guerber, The Story of the English, 42-53, 
73-84, 117-128; Church, Stories from English History, 114-142, 
146-165, 187-202; Yonge, Young Folks' History of England. 
Also: Tappan, In the Days of Alfred the Great and In the Days 
of William the Conqueror. 



The Nobles of the Middle Ages 



i8s 



THE NOBLES OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

70. Classes of People in the Middle Ages. In the 

Middle Ages people lived very different lives from those 
which we lead to-day. Now we have many different 
occupations, and a man may be a farmer, a merchant, a 
lawyer, or follow any one of countless trades or kinds of 
business just as he sees fit. One who does not like the 
quiet life of the country may move to some town or 
bustling city and enter any trade he prefers. We think it 
scarcely honorable now for a person, 
even if he has a large fortune, not to 
engage in some useful work. ' 

But in the Middle Ages it was 
not so. During the earlier part of 
that time there were no towns or 
cities, and everybody lived in the 
country in much the same way. 
Later, towns and cities began to 
grow, but the}^ were always small 
as compared with those we know 
to-day. 

All the people who lived in the 
country — that is to say, nearly 
everybody — belonged to one of three 
great social classes. There were the 
clergy, such as the bishops, priests, 
and monks who carried on the work 
of the church; the peasants, who 
tilled the fields and did all the useful 
labor; and the nobles, whose business it was to fight 
and to rule over the peasants, but who often spent 




A YOUNG SQUIRE, A FRIAR 

ON A JOURNEY. (From the 
Ellesmere MS.), peasants 
BREAKING CLODS. {From 
an early 14th Century 
Psalter) 



1 86 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

much of their time in doing nothing at all that was useful. 

Whether a man was peasant or noble depended on his 
birth, for though a peasant might possibly rise to a noble 
position, this hardly ever happened. A man of any class 
might, of course, join the clergy. A peasant could do so, 
however, only with the consent of the noble on whose 
land he lived. 

71. How the Nobles Lived. The nobles of the 
Middle Ages were fierce and proud people. They had 
high-sounding titles, such as Duke, Count, or Baron, 
which their ancestors had received from the king in 
return for services they had done on the battlefield or in 
council. All the land which did not belong to the church 
J:hey owned, and they looked down on the poor laboring 
peasants who lived on their estates as hardly better than 
cattle. Not all of them indeed were cruel or wicked, but 
they believed that their "gentle blood" made them far 
superior to other people. 

The chief business of the nobles was war, and their 
amusements were warlike games and hunting. They 
lived in great fortified buildings called castles, generally 
set on some steep hill so that the enemy could not easily 
reach them. In early times the castles were only "stock- 
ades" of logs, but later they were made of stone and, 
as men learned more and more about building, they 
came to be great structures with massive walls, huge 
towers, and frowning battlements. A ditch filled with 
water which could be crossed only by a drawbridge 
gave still further protection. 

Since gunpowder was not known in the Middle Ages, 
it was very seldom that a castle could be captured by an 
enemy except after a long siege. Behind the walls of 



The Nobles of the Middle Ages 



187 




TROUBADOURS WITH HARP AND LUTE 



his strong castle a great noble sometimes defied even 

the king himself. So massive were these buildings, that 

after all these 

centuries their 

ruins are still to 

be seen everywhere 

in Europe. 

But though the 
castles were good 
forts they would 
seem to us dread- 
ful places in which 
to live. Since the 
walls were so thick 
and the windows 
only slits for shooting arrows, the rooms were usually 
small and dark. Though in the "great hall" there might 
be a huge fireplace and a roaring fire of logs, most of 
the castle was cold and uncomfortable. There was little 
furniture, and the floors were strewn with rushes in 
place of carpets. Doubtless the family and "men-at- 
arms" spent much time in the courts, or "wards," as 
the open spaces inside the walls were called. Yet only 
strong men and women, used to cold and discomfort, 
could live in such places. 

Hard indeed must have been the lot of the ladies in 
these castles, for they could have little share in the exciting 
occupations of the men. For them there were no books 
in the Middle Ages, and nothing to learn save to play 
some musical instrument or to weave the quaint tapestry 
which sometimes adorned the grim stone walls of the 
cheerless rooms. What a bright day it must have seemed 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



when some wandering minstrel visited the castle to play 
and sing, or when some juggler came to amuse them by 
his tricks! 

But though boys of noble birth were seldom taught 
even to read, they had much to learn, for every noble 
must be a soldier, and the trade of arms in the Middle 
Ages was hard to master. 

72. Warfare in the Middle Ages. The noble always 
fought on horseback and clad in complete armor. At 
first this armor was made of small metal links, like those 
of chains, sewed close together on stout cloth. Later 
men learned how to make better armor of steel plates. 
This armor was so heavy that it took years of practice 
before one could bear it easily or fight in it well. Only 
the strongest horses could carry the armor-clad men, 
and sometimes when a warrior fell from his horse he 

could not rise from the ground, 
and so was easily captured by 
the enemy. 

The heads of the knights were 
protected by steel caps or hel- 
mets, and they carried shields on 
which were painted the coats of 
arms of their families. Their chief 
weapons were the lance, a long 
stout spear, and the sword, or 
battle ax. 

When the knights fought, 
each one leveled his lance and 
charged upon his adversary, seek- 
ing to overthrow him by the shock. Any other kind 
of warfare was difficult for men in such heavy armor. 




01 ^ 



A KNIGHT ON HORSEBACK 

A survival of Ihe armor of the Middle 
Ages may he seen to-day in the 
helmets and cuirasses of cer- 
tain corps of cavalry 



The Nobles of the Middle Ages 




From an old print 



ENGLISH ARCHERS AND 
THE "longbow" 



So well protected, however, were the knights that even 

in hard battles not many were slain. Indeed, it was 

thought a more noble deed of arms to 

capture another knight than to kill 

him. Then a ransom, that is, a large 

sum of money, might be asked for his 

release. 

Slings, bows, and other weapons 
were used in the Middle Ages by sol- 
diers who fought on foot, but they seem 
to have been of little value against men 
in armor. One knight on his great war 
horse was more than a match for many 
light-armed footmen. It was only 
toward the end of this time that the 
sturdy farmers of England learned to 
use a bow six feet long which shot with such force that 
with it they could mow down even "noble knights." 

73. Warlike Games of the Nobles; the Tournament. 
So eager for war and adventure were the nobles that 
times of peace seemed dull. Even hunting, of which 
they were very fond, was not exciting enough. So they 
had "tournaments." These were simply play-wars in 
which knights contended, either in single combat or in 
opposing troops. 

A tournament in the Middle Ages was often a great 
occasion. Galleries were erected from which the ladies 
might view the combats and applaud their champions; 
and high nobles and even kings in splendid costume 
eagerly attended. The knights in their shining armor, 
with colored streamers fluttering from their lances, made 
a gallant picture. 



igo The Story of Old Europe and Yoiing America 

Perhaps two renowned champions were to contend. 
Each, mounted on his strong war horse, took his stand 




A TOURNAMENT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 

at one end of the "hsts," as the tournament ground was 
called. Then, when all was ready, the heralds sounded 
a blast on their long trumpets and the knights, spurring 
at each other, met with a mighty crash which often 
shivered spear and shield, and unhorsed one or perhaps 
both of the combatants. For the victor was great glory, 
and whoever held the lists successfully against all comers 
was crowned with a wreath by the Queen of Beauty, a 
noble lady whom he himself was allowed to choose. 

It was rough play indeed, and fatal accidents often 
occurred, especially as the knights sometimes fought with 
sharp weapons as in real war. But many thought life 
itself a little thing to risk for glory and renown. 

74. What Feudalism Was. In the United States 
to-day all men alike are governed by the President and 
a Congress whom we ourselves elect, but in the Middle 
Ages such an arrangement was unknown. Every country 
in Europe had a king or an emperor at its head, but he 



The Nobles of the Middle Ages 191 

generally had little power. Each noble ruled like a little 
king over the peasants who Hved about his castle, and the 
nobles themselves were joined to each other by an arrange- 
ment called "feudalism," which seems very queer to us. 

It was the rule that every noble must be the "vassal" 
of some "lord." When by the death of his father a young 
man inherited his castle and estate he must visit this lord 
and go through an interesting ceremony called "homage." 

In the great hall of his strong castle the lord seated 
himself. Then the new vassal, in full armor, knelt 
before him and swore a solemn oath, with his hands 
between those of the lord, that he would be faithful in 
everything that was required of a vassal; that he would 
love whatever the lord cherished, and hate when he hated. 
Then the lord kissed the vassal and raised him to his feet. 
Finally there was put in the vassal's hands a twig or a 
piece of turf taken from his own estate, and perhaps a 
vessel of water from one of its streams. This was done 
to show that the lord now gave the estate to him. Thus 
the ceremony ended. 

It might seem to us a rather mean thing thus to kneel 
before another more powerful man. But in the Middle 
Ages homage was thought a ceremony honorable both 
to the vassal and to the lord. Under feudalism most 
nobles were, of course, both lords and vassals at the same 
time, — lords over lesser men and vassals to some still more 
powerful noble, perhaps to the king himself. 

After the homage had been performed, when the lord 
rode forth to war it was the duty of the vassal to go with 
him and fight by his side. From time to time, too, he 
must attend the lord's council or court, and give him 
his best advice. He must entertain the lord when he 



192 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

came to visit his castle, and aid him by gifts of money 
on certain occasions, — as when his eldest daughter was 
married, when his eldest son became a knight, or when 
the lord himself was captured by his enemies and his 
ransom must be paid. Other duties the vassal often 
had also. Yet the lord could not ask him to do any- 
thing he pleased, but only those things which custom 
required. 

In return for this faithful service the lord was bound 
to protect his vassal from his enemies, to see that he had 
justice done him, and to look after the education of his 
children should he die when they were still young. So 
both the lord and the vassal were thought to profit by 
the agreement. 

Since all the nobles were thus bound by solemn oaths 
to love each other, one would think that they must have 
lived together in peace. But such was not the case. 
These people were fierce and loved war. Many would 
never do what they had agreed unless compelled by force. 
Moreover, feudalism often raised puzzling questions, for 
a powerful duke or count would have many vassals who 
usually quarreled with each other ; and a noble who owned 
more than one castle sometimes had a different lord for 
each one. 

So war raged nearly all the time. It was not like the 
wars we have to-day, when one nation fights against 
another, but rather like the quarrels of one man against 
his neighbors. Sometimes a vassal attacked his lord 
because he said he was unjust; often a lord made war on 
his vassals because they would not do what was required. 
Powerful neighboring dukes or counts constantly attacked 
each other or joined to oppose the king. Everywhere 



The Nobles of the Middle Ages 



193 




From MS. of Froissart 
SIEGE OF A FEUDAL CASTLE 



was heard the clash of arms and the clattering of hoofs 
as the knights rode forth on their expeditions. 

But the worst part 
of it all was that the 
chief loss usually fell 
on the helpless peas- 
ants. A noble, if he 
found his enemies too 
strong, fled to his 
strong castle, and 
defied them; but the 
poor peasants had 
their houses burned, 
their crops stolen or 
destroyed, and were 
fortunate if they did not starve to death. Is it any 
wonder, then, that for centuries people in Europe made 
little progress and had barely enough to eat? 

Good kings tried hard to make the restless nobles obey 
the laws and keep the peace. But the nobles were so 
strong that for many centuries little could be done except 
by very powerful rulers, such as Henry II of England, or 
the celebrated St. Louis, king of France. Only very 
gradually, and not until almost the end of the Middle 
Ages, did the power of the king become really supreme, 
and even then only in certain countries of Europe, not 
in all. 

The pope and the clergy also tried hard to stop the 
bloodshed which feudalism brought. Though they did 
not succeed entirely, they often did more than the kings. 
For example, they made a rule that all wars must stop 
from Thursday night until Monday morning, as well as 



194 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




PAGES WAITING ON THEIR LORD AND MISTRESS 



on the days held sacred to saints. Even most of the 
fierce feudal nobles were afraid to disobey entirely 

the orders of the 
church. 

75. Chivalry 
and Rnighthood. 
But fierce as they 
were, we must not 
think that the 
nobles of the 
Middle Ages did 
not have some 
lofty ideas. One 
of them was 
' ' chivalry, ' ' which 
taught that every boy of noble birth should strive to 
be a true "knight" and every girl a "lady." 

A true knight was a brave warrior who feared nothing, 
who was always ready to fight for the poor or the unfor- 
tunate, and who would never do a mean or underhand 
thing. To perform a gallant feat of arms, or to help any 
one in distress, he would gladly risk any danger and never 
ask for pay. A true knight must be a good Christian 
and serve the church. But most of all he was to select 
some noble lady for whose sake he would win renown 
and whose smile would be his highest reward. Thus 
he might wear her glove on his helmet amid the clashing 
blows of the tournament, and, if he were successful, have 
the high honor of naming her the Queen of Beauty, 

Every noble lady was taught to honor bravery and 
self-sacrifice, to encourage her true champion to high 
deeds, and to be courtly and gracious to all. 



The Nobles of the Middle Ages 



195 



The ideas of chivalry marked out for each young noble 
what he was to learn. At about the age of seven his 
training began. Usually he was sent by his father to the 
castle of his lord or to that of some other famous knight. 
Here he became a "page." He waited constantly upon 
the lord and his wife, and by the ladies of the castle was 
taught courtly manners and perhaps how to play and 
sing. But when he grew strong enough for more active 
tasks, perhaps at fourteen or fifteen, he became a "squire." 
He now attended more especially upon the lord. He 
must care for his horses, keep his arms bright, and 
go with him on 
his campaigns. 
Meanwhile, un- 
der the direction 
of his lord, he 
practiced con- 
stantly in the use 
of arms, learning 
to ride, to wear 
the heavy armor, 
and to wield the 
lance. The older 
squires fought 
beside their lords 
in battle. 

Finally the 
time came when 
the squire was 
ready to be made ' ''^'^'^ bestowing knighthood upon a squire 

a knight. The giving of "knighthood" was an impres- 
sive ceremony. After bathing and arraying himself in 




196 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

the required costume of red, white, and black, the young 
man was required to watch for a whole night before the 
altar of a church in which his weapons and armor had 
been placed. In the morning he attended mass and 
then, in the presence of all his family, friends, and vassals, 
advanced to his lord and knelt. The lord drew his sword 
and with the flat of the blade smote the young man on 
the shoul.der, saying as he did so, "In the name of God, 
St. Michael, and St. George, I dub thee knight. Be brave 
and loyal." Then the newly made knight arose joyfully, 
and leaping upon his horse showed his skill in riding and 
in the use of his sword and lance. The ceremony ended 
with a great feast. 

The training in chivalry was high and noble, and the 
world has never forgotten the word or its meaning. We 
still read with admiration the beautiful stories of knights 
of old, like the mythical King Arthur and his companions 
of the Round Table, or the real St. Louis, the brave and 
blameless king of France. Even to-day, when life is so 
different, men applaud a knightly deed. 

Yet, it must be said sadly, in the Middle Ages there 
were few true knights. The men who so solemnly received 
knighthood only too often immediately forgot what it 
meant and were faithless and cruel. Perhaps even these 
reckless and quarrelsome barons were better, however, 
for having thought at least a little of the duty of being 
brave and loyal. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. In the early part of the Middle 
Ages all the people were divided into three great classes, — the 
nobles, the peasants, and the clergy. 2. The nobles ruled over 
the peasants. 3. They spent their time in fighting and in 



The People in the Middle Ages 197 

war-like amusements. 4. Their dwellings were great castles. 
5. These were built as forts and were cold and uncomfort- 
able. 6. The nobles delighted in the play-wars called 
tournaments. 7. All the nobles were joined together by an 
arrangement called "feudalism." 8. This did not give peace, 
but caused continual fighting, q. The idea called "chivalry" 
did something to make the nobles better and less savage. 

Study Questions, i. Why was it that people during the 
Middle Ages could not easily change from one occupation to 
another? 2. Describe a castle, j. Why would life in a castle 
seem very uncomfortable to us? 4. What did the ladies do 
in the castles? 5. What did the boys learn? 6. Tell about 
the ways of fighting used in the Middle Ages. 7. What were 
tournaments? 8. Describe a tournament as if you yourself 
had been one of the spectators, p. What was "feudalism"? 
10. What is meant by "lord" and "vassal"? ii. Tell about 
the ceremony of homage. 12. Why was there so much fighting 
in the days of feudalism? ij. How were the wars different 
from those of our day? 14. What powers did something for 
peace? ij. What did "chivalry" teach? 16. Tell how a 
noble boy was trained in the days of chivalry. 77. Had you 
been a young noble, how would you have received knighthood? 
18. How would you have acted afterward? 

Suggested Readings. Tappan, When Knights Were Bold, 
i-ioi, and European Hero Stories, 1 18-124; Harding, The Story 
of the Middle Ages; Retold from "St. Nicholas"; Stories of 
the Middle Ages, 72-86. Also: Lanier, Boy's King Arthur 
(Scribners, N.Y., 191 1), 50-95; Stevens and Allen, King Arthur 
Stories; Warren, King Arthur and His Knights; Greene and 
Kirk, With Spurs of Gold, 7-85. 

THE PEOPLE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

76. How the People Lived. Very different from the 
life of the warlike nobles was that of the poor peasants. 
They spent their days in hard work and knew nothing 
of the fierce excitement of tournament or battlefield. 

In the Middle Ages the lands of a baron or knight were 
called a "manor." In the center of the estate, often on 
14 



iqS The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

some steep hill, towered the castle with its turrets and 
battlements, above which fluttered the lord's banner. 
But below it clustered the humble dwellings of the peas- 
ants. They were only huts, built of mud, with roofs of 
straw. They had no windows, and a hole in the roof 
t©ok the place of a chimney. A rude bench or two, a 
rack for tools, and some straw for a bed often made up 
all their furniture. 

A few among the people might be a little better off, 
such as the miller, the blacksmith, and the priest. Each 
peasant village had, of course, its church which was, 
after the castle, the chief building of the manor. Then 
there was the mill, the smithy, and perhaps other work- 
shops, if the village were a large one. 

Except for a few persons who had special tasks like 
the smith and the miller, all the peasants worked in the 
fields. But they were not free to do as they pleased as 
are our farmers to-day. The peasant of the Middle Ages 
was a "serf." A serf was not exactly a slave, for his lord 
could not sell him or even take his land away from him, 
yet his lot was hard. He was bound to remain always 
on the manor on which he was born, and if the manor 
were sold to another noble the serf went with it, just as 
■jf he were a tree or a house. No matter how hard condi- 
tions might be, he could not leave the land without his 
lord's consent, unless indeed he ran away and took to the 
woods as a desperate outlaw or robber. 

Usually the serf must work for three days in each week 
on the lands of the lord. Only on the other days could 
he till his own little fields. Extra labor for the lord was 
required too at certain seasons of the year, and besides 
this the serf must present the lord with eggs, chickens, 



The People in the Middle Ages 



199 



Common Fields with tenants' stnps 




PLAN OF A TYPICAL MEDIEVAL MANOR 

The demesne is the land the lord of the manor kept for himself 



or other gifts on occasions like Easter and Christmas. 

The serf must have his corn ground at the lord's mill, 
his bread baked 
at the lord's 
oven, and obey 
all the other 
rules of the 
manor. He 
could not even 
marry without 
the lord's con- 
sent, or sell his 
horse unless he 
gave the lord a 
part of the price. 

Moreover, his wife and daughter must help with the 
household work of the castle and in spinning and weaving. 

Though all their time was given to agriculture, the 
poor serfs of that rude day knew little about how crops 
should be raised when compared with the skillful modern 
farmer. A visitor to a manor would have seen no neat 
fields, separated by fences or hedges, in which each man 
planted the crop he saw fit. Instead, there would have 
been three or six huge fields in different parts of the 
manor, each divided into long, narrow strips which were 
separated only by little ridges of earth. In such a field 
each serf would have one or more strips. He usually 
possessed in all somewhere from, ten to thirty acres. 
Much of the labor the serfs did by working together, for 
none of them owned all the oxen, plows, and other imple- 
ments required. Each must help the others with such 
tools as he had. 



200 



The Story oj Old Europe and Young America 



Every year these poor people had to waste one 
third of their land, for they did not know how to treat 

it with fertiliz- 
ers so as to keep 
it producing. 
In one of their 
great fields they 



t. 




fe* 







From an early 14th Century psalter 
SERFS OF THE MIDDLE AGES PLOWING 



planted wheat 
or rye, in the 
second barley or oats; the third they had to let rest or 
lie "fallow," while the ground renewed its power. The 
next year field number one would rest, number two 
would have the wheat or rye and number three the barley 
or oats. So a field had the same crop only once in three 
years. Such a change is called a rotation of crops, 
but it is very easy to see that the three-field rotation 
is very simple and wasteful. 

Many things which farmers raise to-day were then 
unknown in Europe. Potatoes, tomatoes, beets, and 
indeed most of the vegetables which we find so delicious 
had not yet appeared. Even a lord must live mostly 
on meat, fish, and bread. Tea and coffee had, of course, 
not yet come to Europe, and all must drink water, 
milk, and ale or wine. 

The serfs could, however, keep a few animals, such 
as sheep or hogs, for every manor had its stretch of 
green common pasture where they might feed. In the 
forest, too, the serfs were allowed to collect fallen branches 
for firewood or even to lop off limbs of trees, but the 
trees themselves they might not cut down. 

To us the life of the poor serfs seems miserable. Hud- 
dled in their wretched huts filled with the smoke which 



The People in the Middle Ages 201 

would not go out of the hole in the roof, cold in winter 
and burned by the heat of summer, they seemed hardly 
better off than animals. Many indeed had only a single 
garment to wear, a sort of long shirt tied around the 
waist by a bit of rope for a girdle. 

Worst of all, they could not improve. There was 
no school where the children could learn even to read 
and write, and had it been possible for them to go to 
some neighboring monastery to be taught by the monks 
there would have been no books for them to use when 
they came away. 

As most manors were surrounded by dark forests 
where lurked bands of fierce outlaws, the serfs seldom 
saw people from outside. Nearly everything they used 
or had they must make on their own manor. Perhaps 
salt and iron were all they purchased from without. 

In many cases, however, a great fair was held once a 
year at some place not too far away. How wonderful 
it must have seemed to the poor serfs who were able to 
go to see the curious things offered by merchants who 
perhaps had come from across the sea, and to watch 
the jugglers, acrobats, and performing bears which 
were always features of these meetings. For them the 
fair was the great event of their whole lives. 

And yet the peasants were not always unhappy. 
If the lord of the manor were unjust and cruel their lot 
was terrible, but if he were kind and strong enough to pro- 
tect them they were usually contented. To thousands of 
them it never occurred that any other sort of life was 
possible. 

For hundreds of years the peasants of Europe lived 
in very much the same way. There could be little 



202 The Story oj Old Europe and Young America 

progress or new knowledge until things began to change. 

77. How the Towns Grew. But things did change. 
As the years rolled by some of the villages increased in 
size. Those under the sheltering care of a monastery 
had especial advantages. Others were situated on some 
good harbor of the seacoast, or on some large river where 
men began to come for commerce. Even a crossroads 
gave some encouragement to growth. 

So some of the little clusters of peasants' cottages 
gradually grew into towns where markets were held, 
and these again into cities,-^not indeed into such huge 
centers of population as New York and Chicago are 
to-day, but yet places of considerable importance. 

At first the townspeople were still the serfs of various 
lords, but they soon began to wish for more freedom 
than the rules of the manor permitted. Now they de- 
manded a charter, that is, a document signed by the 
lord, giving them rights to govern their own affairs, 
at least to some extent. And in the end the lord gave 
way and granted what they wished. 

Sometimes the people rose in fury, attacked the 
noble's castle, and compelled him to yield. But far 
more often the citizens of the town, who had now begun 
to grow rich, paid the lord a large sum of money for 
the charter. It often seemed to him a good bargain, 
for he could use the money to hire soldiers and fit out 
expeditions against other feudel lords whom he hated. 

Many of the stronger towns managed to get rid of 
their lords entirely. Thus they became "free cities," 
which ruled themselves and had no one above them but 
the king or emperor. In Germany, especially, there were 
many free cities. 



The People in the Middle Ages 



203 



The cities of the Middle Ages surely did not look very 
much like those of the United States of to-day. Some of 
the old towns of Europe still stand much as they were 
in centuries gone by. The traveler who visits "Sleepy 
Chester" or York in England, or quaint Nuremberg in 
Germany, or Carcassonne on its sunny hilltop in southern 
France, may well feel that he has stepped back into the 
days of Simon de Montfort or St. Louis. Round such a 
city ran a high and massive stone wall, provided with 
battlements and towers. Outside it was a deep ditch 




From an old German print 
THE WALLED TOWN OF NABBURG (BAVARL\, GERMANY) DURING THE MIDDLE AGES 

filled with water. At only a few points were there gates 
with drawbridges, by which persons could enter the town, 
and each gate was fortified by an especially strong tower. 
Defended by its sturdy citizens, a city of this period could 
not easily be captured even by a strong army. 

Since the city had to be built inside of such a wall, 
it did not usually cover as much ground as cities of our 
time. The streets were generally narrow and crooked, 
and though there was nearly always an open market 
place near the center, it was not likely to be very large. 
The houses, however, were often several stories in height 



204 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

and were so built that each story projected a little over 
the one beneath. Thus in some of the narrow streets 
the upper stories of the buildings were not very far 
apart. In some countries the houses had very high roofs 
and tall chimneys, which would make them look very 
quaint to us. 

Every rich city was sure to have several beautiful 
churches. But the crowning glory was often a huge 
"belfry," or bell tower which rose high above all the 
roofs of the town and where a guard was kept constantly 
to watch for fire or for the approach of an enemy. 

Through the narrow streets of such a city there rushed 
no stream of automobiles or heavily laden trucks like 
those we know. Occasionally might have been seen the 
clumsy cart of some peasant, or a string of packhorses 
brought by a rich merchant. But even if wagons and 
carriages were few, the city of the Middle Ages was 
often a busy place. Especially if it was market day, 
and the neighboring peasants had come to sell their 
produce and to purchase in return some of the fine 
things made in the town, the quaint, narrow streets 
bustled with life, and the wooden shoes of the peasants 
made a merry clatter on the cobblestones of the paving. 

78. Industry in the Towns. How did the people in 
the towns make their living? By making things which 
other people wanted to use, and selling them. At first 
they sold to the peasants who lived round about, but 
soon they began to trade with other cities and even 
with distant countries. 

The way the people of the towns of the Middle 
Ages manufactured articles was very different indeed 
from that used to-day. In those old cities were seen 



The People in the Middle Ages 205 

no great factories or mills with their tall chimneys and 
noisy machines. People then did not know how to use 
steam or electricity to turn wheels or drive engines. 
They made everything by hand, and understood only 
simple methods. Men worked in their own houses and 
themselves sold whatever they made. 

All the people who were making the same article 
had to belong to a society called a "guild." Thus 
there was the "weavers' guild," the "shoemakers' guild," 
the "goldsmiths' guild," and very many more. No 
town would let any one make or sell a thing who was 
not a member of the right guild. And it was not always 
easy to become a guild member, for these societies did 
not want very many to engage in their business. 

Those who were full members were called "masters." 
Each master owned one of the tall, quaint houses, where 
he lived with his family. In this was his shop, where 
he worked every day with his men. There was also a 
place where he kept the goods he had to sell, and some 
of those he hung out so that people passing could see 
how fine they were and be attracted to stop and buy. 
All the members of a guild lived on the same street, 
or at least in the same neighborhood, so if a man wanted 
to buy a candlestick, a piece of cloth, or a gold chain he 
knew just where to go. 

We think to-day that a man does right to put what- 
ever price on a thing other people are willing to pay. 
But in the Middle Ages people believed it was wicked 
to ask much more for anything than it cost to make it. 
Every guild had strict rules about the prices its members 
should charge. It had rules, too, about the way in which 
articles should be made. If any of its members charged 



2o6 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




From an old German woodcut 



A GUILD MASTER INSTRUCTING JOURNEY- 
MAN AND APPRENTICE 



higher prices, or worked in a hurry so that their products 
were not strong or good, they might be expelled. So in 

those old days a man 
who bought anything 
might be sure he was 
getting his "money's 
worth," but there were 
few "bargains." 

A boy who wanted 
to be a member of a 
guild must first become 
an apprentice of some 
master. He went to live 
in the master's house and was treated very much as a 
member of the family. While he learned the business he 
was subject to the master and might be harshly punished 
if he was lazy. But he ate at the master's table and 
talked and played with his master's sons and daughters. 
The length of the apprenticeship depended on whether 
the trade of that guild was hard or easy to learn. It 
was usually three years. Then the apprentice, now a 
young man, became a journeyman. He was paid wages 
and might live at his own home. But he still worked 
beside the master on the bench, and could not have a 
shop of his own. The journeyman was satisfied, how- 
ever, and worked hard and tried to become more skillful, 
for he now hoped soon to be admitted a master. 

Finally, if he was fortunate, he became a full member 
of the guild. But first he must prove that he was a 
satisfactory workman by making his "masterpiece," that 
is to say, the finest article his hands could construct. 
How hard the young man must have labored to show 



The People in the Middle Ages 207 

that he was worthy to rank with the best of them all! 

Once a master, he could have a shop and apprentices, 
and hire journeymen of his own. In time he might be- 
come rich. But he must always obey the rules of the 
guild and not try to find new and cheap ways of doing 
things. 

The guilds did other things besides making rules about 
work. They erected fine halls where their meetings were 
held. In wealthy old cities like London, Paris, or Bruges 
in Belgium these quaint and beautiful buildings are still 
regarded by the citizens with pride and admiration. The 
guilds were charitable societies also. If any member died 
poor, the guild provided for his widow and children. If 
any were sick or injured, their expenses were paid. They 
had festivals, too, in which all the members took part. 
Sometimes the whole society went to worship together in 
some great church. In some ways the guild was like a 
great family. 

When we see the great factories of our day, with their 
huge engines and furnaces, and thousands of toiling men 
and women, and then think of the old ways of the guild, 
we wonder sometimes whether, after all, the new way is 
better. In the Middle Ages the -master worked beside 
his men and knew them all well. Though sometimes 
the journeymen and apprentices grumbled against the 
hard rules of the guild, and even "struck," they all knew 
that in time they also might be masters. The guild 
members were friends. Now the owner of a great factory 
seldom knows very many of his workmen, and they know 
that not one in ten thousand of them will ever own a mill. 
Many are the great struggles between capital and labor. 

Yet now we can all buy for a few cents things that in 



2o8 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

the Middle Ages only very wealthy people could own; 
and clever men are always trying to invent new machines 




A CARAVAN OF MEDIEVAL MERCHANTS 



and methods to make things cheaper still. Moreover, 
to-day any man or woman can work at any trade he 
wishes if he has the strength and the knowledge. But 
the guilds were only for a few. 

So the world has both gained and lost. 

79. The Beginnings of Commerce. When the cities 
were still small their chief business was with the peasants, 
who brought as much of their produce as they did not 
need for their own use to sell or exchange for articles made 
in the town. Even now the market day is a busy time 
in European towns. But as the cities grew, the pack- 
horses of merchants trading with places farther distant 
became a sight more and more common. 

To carry on distant trade in those days was diffi- 
cult. Not only were there no railways, but even ordinary 
highroads were almost unknown. It is no wonder, 



The People in the Middle Ages 



209 



therefore, that carts and wagons were of httle use, and 
that everything sent by land had to be strapped on the 
backs of horses. Wherever possible, trade was carried on 
by water. The rivers were great highways of commerce, 
and though the vessels of that day were not well fitted 
for long voyages on the ocean, land-locked seas like the 
Mediterranean and the Baltic were everywhere plowed 
by merchant ships. 

But there were many other dangers besides those of 
nature. Pirates swarmed the seas. Often, also, people 
who lived on the seashore displayed false lights and 
signals so that vessels would be wrecked and they might 
seize the cargoes. 

On land it was even worse. In the dark forests lived 




TOWNSMEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES MARCHING OUT TO ATTACK A ROBBER BARON 

fierce bands of outlaws. But the chief enemies of the 
merchants were the barons and knights whose castles 



2IO The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

were perched upon crag and hilltop along their route. 
The feudal nobles always charged heavy toll upon the 
merchants who passed through their domains, and only 
too often they were real robbers. Swooping down from 
their castles, they seized both goods and horses, and the 
merchants were indeed lucky to escape with their lives. 

But the townsmen of the Middle Ages were a strong 
and sturdy people who did not tamely submit even to 
the nobles. Now and again the citizens would arm 
themselves and march forth against the castle of some 
robber knight who had plundered them. Too late the 
wrongdoer often repented amid the blazing rafters of his 
fortress. 

The towns also did their best to help the king in his 
efforts to bring the nobles to order and make them keep 
the peace. It was owing very largely to their aid that 
in France and England the rulers succeeded in over- 
coming feudalism. But since even a strong town could 
not do much alone, the cities soon began to form leagues. 
All the cities which joined agreed to protect each other 
and to unite against their enemies. Such leagues had 
laws and rules almost like those of a nation. Sometimes 
they raised armies and kept war vessels to guard their 
merchant ships. 

The greatest of all the leagues was formed by the cities 
of northern Germany. It was called the Hanseatic 
League, and at one time comprised nearly seventy towns. 
The three leading towns were Liibeck, Hamburg, and 
Bremen, the two latter of which are still among the 
greatest seaports of Germany. 

The merchants of the Hanseatic League traded every- 
where in northern Europe. In Norway, Sweden, and 



The People in the Middle Ages 



211 



even in distant Russia they had trading stations, or 
"factories" as they are often called. They also had a 
famous trading place in London. 

Belgium was then the greatest country for making all 
kinds of cloth. In its quaint cities, such as Bruges and 
Ghent, was heard on every hand the rattle of the looms. 
Here, too, the Hanseatic merchants came for peaceful 
commerce. 

Southward, up the beautiful river Rhine, the Han- 
seatic merchants carried on a great trade. This route led 
to the flourishing cities of Nuremberg and Augsburg in 
southern Germany, with their high chimneys and peaked 
roofs showing 
above their 
strong walls. 

Thence they 
journeyed to 
the foot of the 
Alps, which with 
their snowy 
peaks and gla- 
ciers cut them 
off from Italy. 
These they crossed by the 
steep mountain passes, 
the favorite way bemg 
the famous Brenner Pass 
which led to Venice. 
Here they exchanged 
their northern goods for 
the wonderful things Italy had to give or which bold 
Italian seamen had brought from the East. 




A BIT OF OLD NUREMBERG 



212 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Northern Italy in those days was a great land of 
flourishing towns. First among them was Venice, which 
sent her ships to Egypt for rich trade with the East. 
This strange city was built on a group of small islands 
situated in the middle of a large, shallow bay. A great 
number of her streets were, therefore, canals, and the 
people of Venice to this day go from place to place in long, 
graceful boats called gondolas. Because she could not 
be easily attacked from the land, the city had prospered 
wonderfully, and many of the tall buildings which lined 
her watery streets were truly palaces, though owned by 
merchants instead of kings. 

On the other side of Italy was the strong rival city, 
Genoa, stretching back on the hills from her long, curving 
harbor. Genoa, too, carried on a mighty commerce with 
the East, and many were the fierce battles when her 
numerous fleets met those of the Venetians. To Ameri- 
cans this old city is especially dear because here was the 
birthplace of Christopher Columbus. 

Then there was Milan, famous for her wonderful 
cathedral, which rose amid the green plain of Lombardy, 
the most fertile land in all the world. 

Farther south was Florence, noted for her manufac- 
tures, her great wealth, and the turbulent character of 
her people. Especially prized was the beautiful jewelry 
made by Florentine goldsmiths. 

Besides these Italy had dozens of other great towns, 
all flourishing in trade and manufacture. Yet unlike 
the cities of the north, the Italian towns only too often 
engaged in war with their neighbors instead of joining 
interests for the common good. 

In England the ancient town of London grew to be a 



The People in the Middle Ages 



213 



flourishing city whose merchants vied with the nobility 
themselves in wealth and influence. More and more 
"London towne" became 
the center of everything 
that went on in England. 
Other important places 
were Bristol and Norwich. 
France, too, had growing 
cities, though, except for 
Paris, they are hardly as 
well known to us as the 
wonderful towns of neigh- 
boring lands. 

Thus a kind of life 
new to the Middle Ages f^^J/"^"^ 
came. Successful mer- 
chants grew rich and 
intelligent. The fierce 
nobles who delighted only 
in war now had rivals in 
the race for power and 
influence, and even the clergy began to find that they 
themselves no longer had all the learning of the world. 
When men meet every day in business and in talk, they 
soon make each other think. After the towns appeared, 
progress in every line was much more rapid than ever 
before. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. The peasants lived on great estates 
called manors. 2. They were serfs, bound to work a part of 
their time for the lord of the manor, j. Their lives were hard 
and it was almost impossible for them to improve. 4. In the 
latter part of the Middle Ages towns and cities began to grow. 
15 




A STREET. SCENE IN VENICE 



214 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

5. The cities got charters from the lords which gave more 
or less freedom. 6. The townspeople made their living by 
manufacturing articles and selling them. 7. All the people 
who made the same article belonged to a society called a 
"guild." 8. Only a few people were allowed to join a guild, 
and they must have a long course of training, p. In time, the 
cities began to carry on distant cominerce. 10. To overcome 
the great dangers to commerce, many of the cities formed 
leagues like the great Hanseatic League of Germany. 11. 
Germany, Italy, and Belgium were especially noted for their 
flourishing cities. 12. The townspeople made great progress 
in learning and civilization. 

Study Questions, i. What sort of place was a peasant 
village in the Middle Ages? 2. How many different occupa- 
tions went on? J. What was a " serf " ? 4. Tell how the serfs 
carried on their agriculture. 5. Why did not the peasants 
learn better methods? 6. What things which we have to eat 
and drink were unknown in the Middle Ages? 7. Why did 
the peasants look forward to attending the fair? 8. Why were 
not the peasants always unhappy? p. Why did towns and 
cities grow? 10. Why did the townspeople ask for charters? 
II. What were free cities? 12. Tell how the towns of the 
Middle Ages looked, ij. What kinds of people came to 
visit such towns? 14. How did the ways of making articles 
in these cities differ from those of our day? 15. Why did 
young men wish to be members of guilds? 16. Explain what 
a man must do to become a guild member. 77. Why were 
few new methods of manufacturing discovered in the Middle 
Ages? 18. What were some of the good things about the 
guilds? ig. What were some of the bad things? 20. Tell 
some of the dangers to be met by merchants who carried on 
distant trade. 21. How did the towns try to overcome some 
of these? 22. What was the Hanseatic League? 23. Name 
some of the chief towns of the Middle Ages in Germany; 
Belgium; Italy; England. 24. What strange things would you 
have seen had you visited Venice? 25. Why did the people of 
the towns become intelHgent and make progress? 

Suggested Readings. Tappan, When Knights Were Bold, 
102-121, 206-275, and European Hero Stories, 125-135; Harding, 
The Story of the Middle Ages. Also: Retold from "St. 
Nicholas": Stories of the Middle Ages, 107-13 1. 



The Church in the Middle Ages 215 

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

80. The Churches of the Middle Ages. In the 

Middle Ages every city and town was proud of its church 
or churches. In our cities to-day we have many pubHc 
buildings, — the city hall, the post office, the courthouse, 
and many more. The people now belong to different 
churches and worship in various places. But in the 
Middle Ages everybody in western Europe belonged to 
the great Roman Catholic church, and all alike took 
interest in building the- same stately and magnificent 
structures for the glory of God and of their native city. 
Each guild had a fine hall for its meetings, and in most 
cities there was at some corner of the walls a powerful 
castle for defense. But in beauty and expense all these 
were far surpassed by the central church, or "cathedral" 
as it was called, if it was the church of a bishop. 

The church in the Middle Ages was not merely a place 
for holding religious service. Great public meetings 
took place there. There, too, people came to visit with 
their friends, to hear news, and to see the fine and beauti- 
ful things which adorned the building. So all felt that 
the church belonged to them and was a part of their 
daily lives. 

To people who love what is old and what is beautiful, 
there is nothing more splendid in the whole world than 
the cathedrals of Europe. The older ones are great solid 
buildings of stone, with heavy walls and massive towers. 
But later people learned how to construct churches in a 
new style, with lofty spires, graceful tapering ornaments, 
and long rows of buttresses which served to give strength 
and beauty at the same time. 



2i6 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



If the outside of the cathedrals seems wonderful, the 
interior fills the visitor with admiration and awe. The 
long rows of great columns, the lofty roof, and the huge 
windows filled with stained glass through which the sun- 
shine floods the building in a blaze of colored light, — all 
are parts of a wonderful picture never to be forgotten. 
But if the visitor begins to examine more carefully, his 
wonder will often become still stronger, for the artists 
and the workmen of the Middle Ages strove to adorn 

■ ^ ; , column and ceil- 



ing with the finest 
carving their 
hands could pro- 
duce. Even the 
tapering spires 
and turrets with- 
out are frequently 
so beautifully 
carved that they 
seem like lacework 
to the eye. Yet 
the graceful 
figures of saints 
and angels, the 
forms of flowers 
and fruits, the 
flowing scroll- 
work, — all are 
carved from the 
solid stone. 




FACADE FROM THE CATHEDRAL OF AMIENS, 
NORTHERN FRANCE 

This church, built between 1220 and 1288, is said 

to be the finest example of Gothic 

architecture in France 



Sometimes, indeed, portions of the carving of the older 
time may seem rather rude and stiff as compared with 



The Church in the Middle Ages 217 

the work of sculptors of our day, but taken all together 
it cannot now be equaled. 

One strange thing about the men who did this beauti- 
ful work was that they also loved what is grotesque 
and absurd. Often, right in the midst of the most 
beautiful carving, they put the figures of grinning imps 
and queer impossible beasts, or perhaps funny little 
figures of cats playing with mice, or naughty boys in 
trouble and howling with pain. But these whimsical 
things are never so placed as to spoil the general effect. 

How could the men of the Middle Ages, who knew 
nothing of steam and little about machinery, and who 
did all their work by hand, construct such great buildings 
and fill them with such ornament? The answer is that 
they had patience. These great cathedrals often took 
centuries to build. One of the largest, that at Cologne 
in Germany, begun in the Middle Ages, was not finished 
until 1880. A boy who wanted to be a stone cutter 
might learn his trade, become a clever artist, and work 
all his life on the same building. In those times men 
cared not alone for pay, but felt satisfied if after years 
of toil they had adorned a column or wrought out an 
ornament which was really beautiful. 

How impressive was the scene in one of these great 
cathedrals when the bishop in his flowing robes, ac- 
companied by a great body of other clergy, solemnly 
chanted the service in the presence of all the citizens 
of some old town. The music, the dimly burning candles 
on the altar, the multitude of people devoutly kneel- 
ing, — all told of the piety and faith of that simple old 
time when men had not yet begun to differ and to fight 
about questions of religion. 



2i8 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

8i. The Clergy and the Pope. In those days, when 
hardly anybody had any learning and only the clergy 
could read and write, the officers of the church did many 
things which they would not think of undertaking now. 

Every church, either in town or country, had at 
least one priest to perform its services. To him the 
simple people went with all their troubles, and if he 
were a wise man he could do much good. People who 
were wicked he sometimes "excommunicated," — that is, 
he cut them off from coming to church. This usually 
so frightened them that they repented or pretended to 
repent. But since education was hard to get in the 
Middle Ages, the priest himself in the little peasant 
villages was often very ignorant. Some priests could 
hardly read the service. 

Far more important was the bishop, who usually 
lived in a city and had a beautiful cathedral. A bishop 
wore a peculiar and impressive dress, with a tall hat 
called a miter, and carried a staff of a kind allowed to 

him alone. 

^.^«^ y^. -^^ ^^^ overseer 

or superintendent 

''■- J,- over all the priests 

. - and other clergy in 

* *" 1^ '*":^^:_^7^ the district, or "dio- 

^ I "^"1 ,- v-^*^*?»*^r cese as it was called, 

SH ^ ^ti Ji"^— =^ - which lay about his 

^..jjuuo-, ^^ '^c"^^^ church. He traveled 

' -"'^^-"^-^ --.- . '"' "" about to see that 

A TYPICAL VILLAGE CHURCH ^J^^y ^^^^ ^^-^^g ^J^^-j. 

work well, and sometimes punished or dismissed those 
who were not faithful. 



The Church in the Middle Ages 



219 



The bishop dwelt in a castle or palace and had 
charge of all the vast lands which belonged to the church, 
for since many people were anxious to 
make gifts to the church it had become 
very rich. Frequently he was stronger 
and more powerful than many dukes or 
counts. In fact, in many parts of Europe 
a bishop was a count at the same time. 

Above the bishop was a still higher 
officer, called the archbishop, who lived 
in some very large city. Often a great 
archbishop, like the Archbishop of 
Canterbury in England, was the man 
next most important to the king of 
the country. 

But the ruler of the whole church 
was the pope at Rome. The pope 
lived in the ancient palace called the 
Vatican, surrounded by the great court 
of officials and secretaries through whom he carried on 
his work. He made all the laws and rules of the church, 
decided all sorts of matters which were brought to his 
court from every part of Europe, and governed the city 
of Rome and the surrounding country. 

In early times the election of a pope often caused 
great trouble, but it was finally settled that when one 
pope died all the great officers of the church who held 
the rank of cardinal should assemble to choose another. 
These notable persons were distinguished by the red hats 
and red robes which they wore, and were the special 
advisers of the pope. They usually chose the new pope 
from among themselves. 




From his great sea 
THOMAS A BECKET, 
ARCHBISHOP OF 
CANTERBURY 



2 20 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

During the Middle Ages the pope of Rome was for 
several centuries far more powerful than any king or 
other ruler. The popes claimed, and several times used, 
the power of deposing any king whom they found to be 
wicked or tyrannical, and of giving his throne to another. 
Many were the struggles between the popes and the 
haughty emperors or kings who tried to defy them; 
such, for example, as the wicked King John of England. 
But few rulers were able to hold out when the pope 
excommunicated them or ordered all the churches in 
their country closed. 

Among all the great popes of this period perhaps the 
strongest were Gregory VII, the man who rose from the 
position of a humble monk to be the ruler of all Europe, 
and the famous Innocent III, who humbled King John. 

With such men as these at the head, the mighty 
Roman church was certain to set on foot great things. 
But among all the enterprises which it started, the most 
exciting and interesting were the Crusades. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. The chief building of a city in the 
Middle Ages was the cathedral or church. 2. Many of these 
are among the most beautiful and wonderful buildings ever 
erected. 3. The cathedrals often took centuries to build. 4. 
The clergy in the Middle Ages had great influence because 
they were almost the only educated people. 5. The head of 
the church was the pope at Rome. 6. The popes often had far 
more power than any king or emperor. 7. Among the greatest 
popes were Gregory VII and Innocent III. 

Study Questions, i. Why did the people of the Middle 
Ages care so mtich for cathedrals and churches? 2. Why do 
people visit these old churches now? 3. Picture in your mind 
a great old cathedral, and tell what you see. 4. Give at least 
one reason why the workmen of the Middle Ages did such 



The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 



221 



beautiful work. 5. Why did the priest of a village church have 
so much influence among his people? 6. What was a bishop? 
7. Tell some of his duties. 8. What was an archbishop? 
g. What archbishop about whom we have studied dared to 
oppose a king? 10. Tell something of the power of the pope. 
II. How was a pope chosen? 12. Name two great popes of 
the Middle Ages. 

Suggested Readings. Tappan, When Knights Were Bold, 
338-366; Grierson, The Children's Book of English Minsters, 
I -8 1, 260-337; Harding, The Story of the Middle Ages. 

THE PILGRIMS AND THE CRUSADERS 

82. People Who Were Called Pilgrims. Pilgrims are 
men and women who make journeys to places held 
sacred because of some event connected with religion. 
Some of the most famous pilgrims were those who visited 
the Holy Land in the eleventh and following centuries, 
to see and worship at the places made sacred by the 
life and deeds of Jesus. 

In Rome the graves of St. Paul and St. Peter are still 
visited by great numbers of people. In England lies 
Thomas a Becket. The stone in the path leading to his 
grave has been worn down by the thousands who have 
worshiped at his place of burial in Canterbury Cathedral. 
To Mecca, in Arabia, the birthplace of Mohammed, the 
founder of the Mohammedan- reHgion, crow'ds of pilgrims 
travel annually, for every believer in that prophet is 
expected to make a pilgrimage to that holy city once 
in his life. 

But the greatest pilgrimages were made to places 
in the Holy Land trodden by the feet of Jesus. In that 
far-off age the churches taught, and men believed, that 
they might get rid of great sins and terrible diseases 
by making such journeys. From every land of Europe, 



222 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

therefore, pilgrims flocked to the Holy Land, singly and 
in crowds, to secure some great blessing. 

But the journey was long and hard. They did not 
know the way well, the roads were bad and often danger- 
ous. They had to climb mountains, cross rivers, and 
go on board ships before they reached the sacred spot. 
There were robbers and murderers along the route. 
The pilgrims often found themselves among people 
speaking a language they had never heard. 

Finally books were written to make easier this hard 
journey. These were probably the beginning of the 
modern guidebooks that are so full of useful and inter- 
esting information about men and events, buildings 
and places. These old books told the pilgrims how they 
should get ready for the journey, what they should do 
on the way, and what prices they should pay. In some 
guidebooks foreign words and phrases were given, which 
helped the pilgrim in securing food and lodging or in 
paying for the sea trip from Europe to the Holy Land. 

When the pilgrim had finished his pious visit, and 
was ready to go back to his native land, it was a wide- 
spread custom for him to make a gift of money or jewels 
to the saint whose tomb he had visited. By this means 
these hallowed places became very rich as the gifts piled 
up year after year. The pilgrim usually took back 
with him some token of his visit, just as people nowa- 
days like to carry home a souvenir of their trip. In the 
case of the pilgrim he generally carried back a medal 
on which the name of the saint or some pious words 
were written. To his admiring neighbors he could 
thus furnish proof of his pilgrimage. The people 
listened with wide-eyed wonder to his tales of adventure 




PILGRIMS ON THEIR WAY TO THE SHRINE OF THOMAS A BECKET AT CANTERBURY 



2 24 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



and the stories of what he had seen. He became a 
man of renown in his native village after he had been 
to the Holy Land and seen the very places hallowed 
by the presence of Jesus. 

As time went on, pilgrimages to the Holy Land 
became more and more dangerous, and pilgrims went 
together in companies for protection. Although these 
crowds numbered several hundreds, and some of them 
were armed, not half of the people ever came back. 
Many died of starvation and sickness, or lost their 
lives by accident or in battle. 

83. The Cultured Arabs and the Fierce Turks. 
Though the Christian religion began in the Holy Land, 
that region had long before this time been conquered 
by the Arabs. Led by the great prophet Mohammed, 
this remarkable people had left the deserts of Arabia and 

by a series of wonder- 
ful conquests over- 
run all southwestern 
Asia and northern 
Africa. They even 
crossed the Strait of 
Gibraltar and estab- 
lished their power in 
Spain. 

Though originally 
a very war-like race, 
the Arabs soon be- 
came highly civilized. 
They adopted much 
of the learning of the Greeks and Romans, and added 
other ideas which they got from the East. From them 




From glass in Canterbury Cathedral 
PILGRIMS AT THE SHRINE OF THOMAS A BECKET 



The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 



225 



the people of Europe learned much about the move- 
ments of the heavenly bodies and got their first 
notions of chemistry and 
other scientific subjects. 
The Arabs were best of all 
in mathematics. The Arabic 
figures, which we still use in 
arithmetic, are named after 
them. 

At a time when the 
rest of Europe was almost 
barbarous the Arabs, or 
" Moors," of Spain had great 
universities and constructed 
beautiful buildings, such as 
the famous palace of the 
Alhambra, which are still 
viewed with delight. 

The cultured Arabs were tolerant of people of other 
religions, and permitted the Christian pilgrims to worship 
at the shrines they held so dear. But presently western 
Asia was overrun by a ruder and fiercer Mohammedan 
tribe called the Turks. These came with fire and sword 
from central Asia, and conquered everything in their 
path. They refused to allow the pilgrims to see the holy 
places, and killed them by the hundreds. 

The returning pilgrims told of this cruel treatment. 
They not only told of their own hardships but spoke 
of the shame and disgrace to Europe of permitting the 
Turks to hold the sacred places of the Christian religion. 

The Greek emperor, a Christian prince whose capital 
was at Constantinople, became alarmed by the conquering 




A WARLIKE TURK OF THE ELEVENTH 
CENTURY 



2 26 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



Turks. He tried to defeat them in battle, but the 
soldiers of Mohammed were too powerful for him. He 
then thought of his good friend, the pope, to whom 
many of the pilgrims had told their stories, and who was 
the religious ruler over the nations of Western Europe. 
The emperor begged the pope to come to his aid and 
help in driving back the Turks. 

84. How the Crusades Began. Pope Urban replied 
to the emperor's plea by calling a great council at Cler- 
mont in France. In the presence of assembled thousands, 
of rich and poor alike, he told the story of the sufferings 
of the pilgrims, and appealed to the people of all Western 
Europe to arouse themselves, stop fighting each other, 
and go to rescue the Holy Land from the hands of the 
infidel Turk. He stirred the mighty crowd to the great- 
est excitement. Soldiers drew their swords and waved 

their banners, and 
the multitude 
sent up a mighty 
shout, crying: 
"God wills it! It 
is the will of 
God!" The pope 
then declared that 
"God Wills It" 
should be their 
battle cry, and 
that every soldier 
should wear a 
cross — upon his 
breast as he went forth to the Holy Land, and upon 
his back as he returned. 




PREACHING TO THE CRUSADERS 

An appeal was made not only to the spirit of religious 

enthusiasm hut to the love of fighting 

and adventure 



The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 



227 




CRUSADERS ON THE MARCH 

Each Crusader undertook ihe expedition on his 

own account, and 7vas under orders 

only so long as he pleased 



The excitement, beginning at Clermont, spread to 
all classes in the remotest corners of Western Europe. 
Many preachers, dur- 
ing the fall and winter 
of 1095 and 1096 still 
further stirred the 
people. Rich and 
poor, soldier and beg- 
gar, joined the forces 
bound for the Holy 
Land to destroy the 
Turks. The summer 
of 1096 was chosen as 
the time for the great 
army to start. 

But to those people who did not know how hard would 
be the battle or how far would be the march, the time 
seemed much too long in which to get ready. They were 
anxious to get at the Turks at once. Many wanted to 
be among the first to strike the blow that should drive 
the enemy from the sacred places. These impatient 
persons found their leaders. A great speaker, Peter the 
Hermit, and a poor knight called Walter the Penniless, 
put themselves at the head of these hosts and set out 
immediately for the conquest. 

Unfortunately, this curious army of knights and 
monks, of artisans and peasants, of beggars and criminals, 
of women and children, had made very little preparation. 
What was still more unfortunate, they truly believed 
that Christ and the various saints would come to their 
rescue in some such way as that in which the Lord pro- 
vided food for the Israelites in the wilderness. 



228 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



These thousands of crusaders were like swarms of 
hungry locusts, eating people out of "house and home" 

in the regions through 
which they traveled. 
They journeyed up the 
Rhine for a time, but 
when they came to the 
' ' beautiful blue Dan- 
ube" they found the 
Hungarians maddened 
by their plundering. 
The Hungarians set 
their armies on them, 
and the Crusaders 
hastened forward to 
Constantinople. 

But the emperor, 
instead of giving them 
a hearty welcome, was 
only too glad to get rid of them because they set fire 
to some of his buildings in the city and began robbing 
the churches. He hurried them across into Asia Minor, 
where they fell a prey to the well-drilled and wtII- 
fed soldiers of the Turks. Neither the prayers of the 
monks nor the swords of the knights could gain for them 
the hoped-for victory. The Turks were victorious in the 
battles around the old town of Nicaea, and the sacred 
places remained in the hands of the infidels. Only a 
very few of the great host that began the journey under 
the banners of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penni- 
less ever saw their native land again, many were killed 
in battle, but thousands died of disease. 




WALTER THE PENNILESS 

Atnong all the Crusaders the knights in their suits 
of armor were the most noticeable 



The Pilgrhns and the Crusaders 



229 



85. The First Trained Army. But Western Europe 
put more hope in the orderly troops that had been get- 
ting ready during that winter and summer. A great 
army was prepared, commanded by the best generals. 
The number of knights and their followers was very large 
indeed; three hundred thousand, some say, while others 
believe it was even larger. They came from several 
countries, but the French soldiers were the flower of the 
army. Each leader took his followers by a different 
route, but all agreed to meet at Constantinople. This 
was one of the richest and most beautiful places the 
Crusaders had ever seen. How overjoyed they were 
when the spires of that great city broke on their sight! 
They lifted up their voices in shouts of joy and praise. 

But the emperor was 
now sorry he had asked 
the pope to send him 
soldiers to conquer the 
Turks. For many of 
the Crusaders wanted 
to conquer them not 
for the eastern emperor but for the 
lands they would thus win and rule 
over. They quarreled, and came to 
hate each other almost as much as 
both hated the Turks. Therefore 
the emperor greatly rejoiced when 
the Crusaders had passed over into pi^ter the hermit 

Preaching with great earnest- 
Asia IVIinOr. ness, he roused his hearers 

to a high pitch of 

The Turks were hardly ready for enthusiasm 

the knights of the West. They believed them to be 
another helpless crowd, half starved and poorly led. 
16 




230 The Story of Old Europe and Voting America 

What a mistake! Here were some of the best and 
bravest soldiers of Europe, and the Turks proved no 
match for them. So the Crusaders captured the old 
Asiatic town of Nicaea, where the first band of Chris- 
tians had been defeated. 

After this first great victory the Christian soldiers 
hurried southeastward to the ancient city of Antioch, 
a walled town and well fortified. But the Turks were 
brave and fought well. They did not yield as quickly 
this time. Many of the Crusaders grew discouraged. 
Some became homesick and returned to their native land. 
Victory seemed far away. They had been fighting for 
over three months. 

86. The Wonderful Spear. This has been called the 
"Age of Faith," for people in that far off time believed 
many impossible things. About this time a pious monk 
had revealed to him in a dream — so the story goes 
— a wondrous spear or lance. This spear had pierced 
the side of Jesus at the time of His crucifixion, and now 
lay buried in a church near by. If this lance were once 
found and carried at the head of the army nothing could 
stand in the way of victory. The monk told the Cru- 
saders that three times he had been assured of this in his 
dreams. But to find the Holy Lance much fasting and 
prayer by the Crusaders were necessary. 

Finally, after long searching, the spear was found. 
A wonderful zeal now seemed to seize the entire army. 
They rushed to battle, stormed the walls, broke through, 
and Antioch fell. But the advantage gained was lessened 
by quarrels among the leaders as to who should rule the 
city and the surrounding region. 

It was not until the spring of 1099 that the crusading 



The Pilgnms and the Crusaders 



231 




THE STORMING OF ANTIOCH 

The Crusader's u'ere a year taking this rich city 



host, by this time much smaller in number, reached the 
city of Jerusalem. Here, too, they found a walled city, in 
a region where 
the springs or 
wells had all 
dried up. It 
was almost im- 
possible to get 
water, and there 
was great suffer- 
ing among the 
soldiers and 
their horses. 

But in spite 
of these hard- 
ships the Crusaders went bravely to work to capture the 
city. After many days of hard fighting there seemed 
little prospect of success. But again their faith was put 
to the test. The priests declared that, in a vision, they 
had been told that if the army should march around 
Jerusalem, barefooted, for nine days, the city would fall. 

That was indeed a strange procession which the 
Mohammedans saw — a barefooted army marching around 
their city, with bishops at their head, and every one 
chanting hymns. No wonder the infidel Turks mocked 
from their walls as they watched. Instead of fighting, 
these bold soldiers of the western world were singing 
songs and reciting prayers! So the Mohammedans 
thought. 

Suddenly these praying soldiers were turned into 
fighting demons. The city was stormed from two sides 
at once. Showers of stones were hurled at the Turks; 



232 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

huge battering rams pounded great holes in the walls, 
through which many of the Crusaders poured, and by 
using great scaling ladders, hundreds climbed upon the 
walls. There was terrible hand-to-hand fighting, and 
the Christians overcame the Mohammedans. 

87. How the Crusaders Acted. At last the city 
fell. But such a victory! Maddened by the long, 
brave fight of the Turkish defenders, the Christians put 
them to death by the most horrible cruelties. Moham- 
medans had their heads cut off, were shot through by 
arrows, or were driven to leap from high towers. Not 
satisfied, the Christians burned scores and scores of 
Turks. The bodies were piled so thick in the streets 
and pubHc squares that people on foot or on horseback 
could hardly pass. This was all done in the name of 
the gentle Jesus who had taught His followers a very 
different lesson. 

The Crusaders had won, and Jerusalem was in their 
hands. They appointed one of their great soldiers to 
rule over it and the country around. The city and the 
neai;-by land were called the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 

Hundreds of the Crusaders returned home to greet 
their loved ones who had so long waited and prayed for 
them. But thousands did not return. They were 
filling unknown graves along the Danube, in the land of 
the Hungarians, or in the Holy Land. Yet the souls 
of those who died fighting the Turks were happy, accord- 
ing to the teaching of pope, bishop, and priests, and 
according to the belief of all the Crusaders. 

Many new bands of Crusaders were constantly 
arriving in Asia Minor, for the Holy Land had to be 
guarded. The Turks were brave, and refused to give 



234 ?^^^ Story of Old Europe and Young America 



M 



up easily. They kept on fighting much of the time, and 
fifty years (1144) after the pope called the brave sons 
of Western Europe to the First Crusade, 
news came that the Turks were again vic- 
torious and had captured one of the most 
important strongholds of the Christians. 

88. The Second Crusade. The Second 
Crusade was preached by an eloquent man 
whose title v.^as St. Bernard. Two kings, 
one of France and one of Germany, gathered 
their hosts. St. Bernard told the Crusaders 
that the Christian who slew an unbeliever 
in the Holy War was sure of his reward, 
the more certain if he himself were slain. 
The Christian rejoiced in the death of the 
pagan because he thought Christ was thereby 
glorified. This was indeed a strange doc- 
J trine, but thousands accepted it. The Second 
Crusade did but little to win back the places 
held by the enemies of Christianity. 
89. The Third Crusade. This was the crusade of 
Richard the Lion-Hearted. More than forty years had 
passed since St. Bernard called the men of the west to 
the Second Crusade. News came to Western Europe of 
the rising power of a great man among the Mohamme- 
dans, — Saladin, one of the greatest soldiers and wisest 
statesmen among the followers of Mohammed. He was 
kind in his treatment of his enemies; he was a man of 
his word; what he promised, he did. 

Saladin's army swept up from Egypt, carrying every- 
thing before it. Jerusalem was threatened. The Chris- 
tian soldiers marched out to meet Saladin in a great 



RICHARD I 

From an effigy al 
FontervauU 



Tlie Pilgrims and the Crusaders 



23s 




battle. But the Mohammedans were victorious. The 
king of Jerusalem had been taken prisoner and many 
of the bravest Christians 
had been killed. 

Saladin in turn laid 
siege to Jerusalem, and the 
city fell within a short 
time. (1187). Now the 
victorious Saladin taught 
the Christians a noble 
lesson in warfare. He did 
not kill a single prisoner, ,, " ^'^chine for hurung stones 

" -^ i>ione-nurling machines were in use even in 

but set every one free. ^^'^ Testament times 

It was the news of the capture of Jerusalem that 

called forth the greatest 
of the Crusades. The 
Third Crusade numbered 
among its heroes Richard 
the Lion-Hearted, King 
of England, Frederick 
Barbarossa, emperor of 
the Germans, and Philip 
Augustus, King of 
France; but the most 
romantic of these was 
Richard. 

Frederick Barbarossa 
was also an interesting 
character. He was so 
named because of his 

A MOVABLE TOWER , 1 'U a ci r r\ TT<3 

These towers greatly aided the besiegins> great rCQ DCara. XlC 

army to gainjnjntrance to ^.^g ^ ^^^ SCVCUty yCarS 







.mm 



236 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




\TTERING 
RAM 



Under the protecting 

cover, men worked the 

huge mounted beam, 

metal-covered and beat 

doxvn opposing walls 



old, full of energy and courage, a true son of Germany. 
His army was the first to get ready, but the great man 

lost his life in 
Asia Minor while 
swimming a river. 
His soldiers lost 
heart. Some re- 
turned home, but 
most of them fell 
in battle. 

Philip and 
Richard were 
wiser. They did 
not take the long 
routes by land, which caused so much suffering, but 
took ships from southern France and sailed in almost 
a straight line for the Holy Land. They found the 
Christians already besieging Acre, a seaport not far 
from Jerusalem. The siege had been long and hard. 
The Mohammedans were good fighters, since Saladin was 
their leader. 

But the fame of Richard the Lion-Hearted put new 
life into the besiegers. Richard was indeed a man to be 
admired. He was big, strong, and good looking. It 
was said that no man in England was strong enough to 
handle the king's battle ax. In battle no knight was 
able to keep his seat in the saddle when Richard gave 
him a thrust with a lance. 

Now when Richard and his soldiers came to Acre, the 
Crusaders took new heart. He showed them where to 
place their battering rams and "moving towers" so as 
to do the most good. The stone-hurling machines were 



The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 



237 



again brought into frequent use, and in the end Acre fell. 
Men said that this result was largely due to the wisdom 
and courage of Richard the Lion-Hearted. 

Again quarrels broke out among the Christians. 
King Philip went home, but others kept old jealousy and 
hatred burning. This division among the Crusaders 
prevented them from winning back Jerusalem. It is 
said that before he left the Holy Land Richard mounted 
his war horse and rode up a high hill in sight of the Holy 
City, but he lifted his shield and held it so that he might 
not behold the city he could not rescue. 

90. Richard and Saladin Good Friends. While in 
the Holy Land Richard fell sick of a fever. His enemy, 
the noble Saladin, sent him fruits fresh from Damascus 
to tempt his appetite, and snow from the mountains 
to cool his parched lips. They exchanged messages and 
became good friends. 
Richard made a 
treaty with Saladin 
by which the Chris- 
tians were allowed to 
visit the holy places 
in peace and comfort. 
Thus by his wisdom 
and by the generosity 
of Saladin more was 
accomplished for the 
pilgrims than by all 
the Crusades both 
before and after. 

But though the Lion-Hearted and Saladin became 
friends, Richard's name was a terror to the common 




A QUARREL BETWEEN TWO LE.\DERS OF 
THE CRUSADERS 



238 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



people among the Mohammedans. After he was long 
dead, the fathers still told their children many stories 
of his deeds and of his great battle ax, which contained 
twenty pounds of iron in its mighty head. If a Moham- 
medan's horse shied at something at the roadside he would 
say, "How, now! Dost thou see Richard the king?" 
The mothers, too, frightened their crying children by 
saying, "Be quiet! The King of England will get you!" 
On his way home the great soldier was shipwrecked 
near Venice and found himself in the hands of the Duke 
of Austria, one of his enemies in the Holy Land. The 
duke put him in prison in a lonely castle, where his own 
people could not find him. 

91. The Story of the King's 
Friend. Long afterward men told 
a beautiful story of how King 
Richard was rescued. In England 
he had a favorite minstrel, called 
Blondel. They had played the 
harp and sung together, particularly 
one song Richard himself had com- 
posed. Blondel set out to find his 
good master. He wandered from 
castle to castle, singing and playing- 
under the windows the songs they 
used to sing. One evening, as the 
sun went down in the west, he sat 
himself down by a great castle 
among the hills, too tired and hun- 
gry to sing. From a window above 
came the strains of sweet music. He listened. It was 
Richard's voice, singing the song he knew so well. At 




blondel hears the 
king's voice 



The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 



239 




From an old engravi 
THE children's CRUSADE 



the end of the first verse Blondel took up the second. 
The king heard it, and recognized the voice. Blondel 
had come, and 
now he would be 
free ! 

But it was 
not an easy task 
to open the castle 
doors, for the 
duke demanded 
a great •ransom. 
The people of 
England paid a 
vast sum in gold 
for the king's 
release, and when 
he reached his own country there was indeed great 
rejoicing. Richard the Lion-Hearted found so much to 
do in England he was never able to carry on another 
Crusade as he had hoped to do. 

92. Later Crusades. The Crusades went on for 
nearly one hundred years after Richard's time. Among 
the saddest of them all was the Children's Crusade, in 
which thousands of boys and girls marched away never 
to come back. 

The later Crusades began to take on a different 
character. Instead of fighting the Mohammedans the 
Crusaders sought to gain trading places in the East by 
attacking the Christian city of Constantinople. The 
cities of Venice and Genoa, in what is now Italy, came 
into possession of this foreign trade. As it grew, it 
drew to itself the rich spices and silks of the most distant 



240 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



parts of Asia. The merchants of Venice and Genoa 
then carried this trade to their own cities, to distribute 
it to the west and north. 

93. What the Crusades Did. The pilgrims and 
Crusaders told wonderful tales of what they had seen 
and of the adventures they had had. As a result of the 
Crusades travel became safer than ever before. Conse- 
quently more people sought the East, some still to make 
pilgrimages, but an increasing number to see and to 
learn. Travel makes men wiser, broader, and more 
'just and generous in judging strangers. The more the 
people knew, the more they wanted to know. Before 
the Crusades people had to do most of their counting 
by using Roman figures, such as I, II, III, IV, and so on, 
but after the Crusades were over people had learned 
a much simpler way of counting by using the present 

system, which they 
called the Arabic, 
because obtained 
from the Arabs. 
But we no\Y know 
that it probably 
came from far- 
away India. 

Again, people 
learned from com- 
ing in contact with 
the Moors, the 
Mohammedan in- 
vaders of Spain, 
how to ornament their houses more tastefully. The 
Alhambra, once one of the most beautiful buildings in 




After print in Winsor's 

and Critical History of An 



A MERCHANT SHIP OF VENICE 



The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 241 

the world, was built in Spain by the Mohammedans, 
We have seen the Crusaders under Philip and Richard, 
in the Third Crusade, take ship and sail directly for the 
Holy Land. The merchants who agreed to furnish the 
ships needed larger and stronger vessels, not only to carry 
the soldiers but to care for their horses and to carry the 
food supplies demanded by the army, as well as the great 
machines for fighting. The Crusades, therefore, led to 
improvements in shipbuilding. 

These merchants were quick to seize an advantage, 
and did not propose to have their ships go back empty. 
They loaded them with those products of soil, mine, and 
loom which Europeans were beginning to demand. Then, 
too, the merchants pressed for admission to the cities 
won by the Christians, and had places set apart for their 
agents, in which to buy and sell. From these places they 
traded and trafficked for the rich carpets, rugs, and 
shawls that came by caravan from Egypt, Persia, or even 
from India. Damasks, satins, silks, and velvets were 
added to their store. They even bought drugs and 
spices, sugars and perfumes. All these articles were 
loaded on ships for Genoa or for Venice, to be sent from 
these cities to various towns of Europe. This trade 
gave these two towns great advantages. 

Venice became the richest and most beautiful of all 
the cities. In fact, it became a nation, ruled by a great 
man called the Doge. He was visited by the pope, the 
Emperor of Germany, and other rulers, so important a 
man was he. There were many wonderful things to see 
in Venice, and even in our day it is visited by thousands 
of people. It is a city built on a number of islands at 
the head of the Adriatic Sea. Many of its "streets" 



242 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



are long, winding canals and, instead of having horses 
or street cars or automobiles, the people get from place 

to place by means 






Tfi" ' ' 




SCENE ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE 



of little boats 
called " gondolas. " 
These boats are 
long, narrow, and 
usually moved by 
one man standing 
at the stern with 
a long oar. The 
rulers of Venice 
strove to make 
their city a place 
of beauty. They 
employed the best 
artists to carve in marble the faces or figures of the 
most famous of their men, other artists to paint on 
canvas the wonderful events that had taken place, and 
others, still, to make their houses, halls, and churches 
stately, grand, and beautiful. 

Perhaps the place most widel}^ known in our day is 
St. Mark's Piazza, a wide sort of square with St. Mark's 
Church at one side and on the other, shops or stores 
containing beautiful and costly ornaments. 

Genoa was the greatest rival Venice had for the trade 
with the East. She, too, had ships and soldiers, and for 
a time got possession of the trade with Constantinople 
and the Black Sea. Finally, in a great sea fight, the 
vessels of Genoa were completely overcome by those of 
her rival, Venice, and from that time until the water 
route to India was discovered by the Portuguese, Venice 



""^ivhSI 




tW_^.— -*■ lies =\ 


. 


\y^^ii« '"' \ 


^ 


f\ \ >_---' V 




uA^^-^ \ 


't, 




I Ui 


W \ '^ 


\ ^ 


\\ 1 "^t 




W 1 ^ 










The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 243 

had most of the rich trade of the Orient. But after the 
Turks won Constantinople and broke up the old trade 
routes to the East, and the all-water route around Africa 
to India became established, there arose on the shores 
of the Atlantic those splendid trading ports of Cadiz, 
Lisbon, Antwerp, Amsterdam, and London. This ocean 
commerce was established first by the Portuguese, then 
the Dutch, and later still the English sent men to East 
Africa, India, and China to buy the products of these 
lands. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts. /. Early pilgrimages to the Holy 
Land and other sacred places. 2. How the pilgrim was 
looked upon when he returned home. j. What the people of 
Europe learned from the Arabs. 4. The Turks robbed and 
killed the pilgrims in the Holy Land. 5. The Council of Cler- 
mont, and what came of it. 6. Two ways of conducting a 
Crusade. 7. How the eastern emperor received the Crusaders. 
8. The siege of Antioch. g. How Jerusalem was finally cap- 
tured. 70. The Second Crusade. //. The three great leaders 
of the Third Crusade, and what each did. 12. Richard the 
Lion-Hearted and Saladin. ij. The story of Richard and Blon- 
del. 14. The later Crusades. ij. Increase of knowledge, 
travel, shipbuilding, and trade. 16. Rise of Venice and Genoa. 

Study Questions, i. How do the purposes of pilgrimages 
differ now from those made long ago? 2. What obstacles did 
the early pilgrims encounter? j. Why did the eastern emperor 
ask the pope for aid? 4. Make a mental picture of the Coun- 
cil of Clermont. 5. What was the trouble with the Crusaders 
who followed Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless? 
6. Draw a map of the great routes of the Crusaders. 7. Do 
you believe the story of the wonderful spear in the capture of 
Antioch? 8. Describe the miracle performed in the siege of 
Jerusalem, g. In what way did the victors show that they 
were not true followers of the Cross? 10. What was the cause 
of the Second Crusade? //. What was the cause of the Third 
Crusade? 12. Who was the romantic hero of this crusade? 
I J. What did the Lion-Hearted do, besides fight, to promote 



244 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

the welfare of the Christians? 14. How did the later Crusades 
differ from the others? ij. Enumerate the good things ac- 
complished by the Crusades. 

Suggested Readings. Knights and Pilgrims: The Story 
of the Nations, 282-299; Colby, Selections from the Sources of 
English History, 41-44; Richard the Lion-Hearted: Cheyney, 
Readings in English History drawn from the Original Sources, 
68-70, 1 71-176; Robinson, Readings in European History, 
321-329; Ogg, A Source Book of Mediceval History, 291-296. 



MARCO POLO'S GREAT JOURNEY 
AND HIS BOOK 

94. The Polos' Visit to China. The voyages of the 
merchants of Genoa to the Black Sea, and of those of 
Venice to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, were 
even more important in making men acquainted with 
the marvels of the hidden regions of the Far East, China 



E u R o P E 







A S I. A 

y,^ -n 

!~P0L0 /^ s Tai.vuen-fii Sj; 
^...^ y Go 



A F R 1 C) A 




MAP SHOWING THE ROUTE OF MARCO POLO S JOURNEY 

and Japan, than were the wonderful tales of the pilgrims. 
The caravan, making its slow w^ay across desert and 



Marco Polo's Great Journey 



245 



over mountain, brought back something besides the 
products of that land of romance and wonder: the 
tales told probably . _ 

lost nothing in being 
repeated from mouth 
to mouth. But more 
truthful and more real 
were the stories 
brought b}^ those few 
merchants and travel- 
ers who had braved 
the dangers themselves 
and gone to the Far 
East. 

Two brothers 
named Polo who lived 
in Venice sought these 
strange lands. So 
charmed were they 
with their first visit, 
that after a few years 
at home they took 
with them, on a second 
journey, young Marco, 
son of one of the 
brothers. Over three years were spent in reaching the 
king of that far-distant country. His name was Kublai 
Khan, and his country was called Cathay or China. 

Young Marco became a favorite of the great king, 
and was sent to the most distant parts of China and to 
other countries in his service, while his father and uncle 
were busy gathering rich treasures of precious stones. 
17 




medallion : 
Life of Marco 



THE POLOS RETURN HOME 



246 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



Twenty years passed, and the time came when the 
brothers longed to return home. The king did not wish 
to part with Marco, but finally gave his consent. It 
took nearly three years to reach Venice. The two 
brothers had gray hair and wrinkled faces, and Marco, 
only a boy when they set out, had long since grown to 
be a man. Not even their kinsfolk knew them when 
they reached home, and all refused to believe in them 
and their travels. 

To prove the truth of their stories the travelers 
decided to give a feast, to which they invited many 
old-time friends and neighbprs. At it they tore open 

the seams of their 
travel-stained clothes, 
and out rolled stores 
of diamonds and emer- 
alds and rubies and 
sapphires. The people 
were convinced that 
these men were really 
the Polos come back 
from a far-ofT land. 

From being rivals 
for the trade with the 
East the people of Ven- 
ice and the people of 
Genoa became deadly 
enemies. They fought 
mainly on the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. Marco 
Polo was given command of the ships of Venice, and in a 
great sea fight seven thousand Venetians were captured. 




edallion in Yule's Life of Marco Polo 



MARCO POLO IN PRISON, DICTATING AN ACCOUNT 
OF HIS TRAVELS 



Inventions in the Fifteenth Century 



247 




A CROSSBOW 

The crossbow ji'as mounted on a stock and discharged 
by means of a catch or trigger 



Among them was Marco Polo. The Genoese threw him 
into prison, where he spent most of his time in prepar- 
ing an interesting 
story of his 
travels in the Far 
East. 

This famous 
old book was 
written in the 
very town in 
which later Co- 
lumbus was born. 
If Columbus did 
not read the wonderful tales .of Marco Polo, he certainly 
heard them told, and saw the result of those journeys 
in the making of better maps and in the desire of the 
people for the products of far-off lands. 

INVENTIONS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 

95. Early Inventions. There were many things known 
to the people of the fifteenth century, but they had many 
more to learn. They had not uncovered the great 
secrets of nature, and did not know about several of the 
most wonderful inventions and discoveries of our day. 

But by the fifteenth century interesting inventions 
had been made. We have already seen that centuries 
and centuries ago man probably lived in caves and holes 
in the ground as a means of protection. Finally he 
learned to build some sort of a house or fort for safety. 
He early learned the art of making rude rafts and boats 
to carr}^ his family and goods from place to place on the 
water. 



248 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




In those old days people invented the bow — the 
longbow and the crossbow — and also the great battle ax 

or hatchet to get their food or to 
drive off their enemies. Later 
they added to their stock of 
food and clothing by inventing 
the plow and the spinning wheel. 
Early in this book (p. 13), 
3'ou read the story of how the 
Egyptians and Assyrians learned 
the art of writing, and how they 
left records of the mighty deeds 
of their kings. The Phoenicians 
invented the alphabet, so that 
men could more easily write the 
records of their lives. This was 
a great step forward, for the 
people of one age could thus 
learn about the success or failure of the people of past ages. 
96. Invention of Printing. Before the invention of 
printing in the fifteenth 
century men made books 
very slowly and very labori- 
ously by copying page after 
page by hand. This was the 
sort of book that Marco Polo 
made. But in this century, 
in both Holland and Ger- 
many, men laid claim to the 
discovery of printing. So 
simple was this invention, that men wondered it had 
not been discovered long before. It consisted in cutting 



MAN WITH LONGBOW 

Longbows were often five or six feci 

long, the shorter being used by 

horsemen, the longer by 

foot archi:rs 




TWO BATTLE AXES 

Upper, German horseman's (in Dresden 

Museum); lower, Slavonic {after 

drawing by Diirer) 



Inventions in the Fifteenth Century 



249 



the different letters out of separate pieces of wood, and 
in so placing the letters as to spell words on a printed 
page. In this way whole books 
could be printed if enough let- 
ters were made. Finally Guten- 
berg, one of the inventors, made 
a printing press that turned out 
pamphlets and books, especi- 
ally the Bible, in large numbers 
for that age. 

The invention came at a 
happy time in the world's his- 
tory. The new learning was 
beginning to brighten the dark 
places of Europe. Stories of the 
wonders seen by great travelers 
like Marco Polo were eagerly 
sought. The Turks were break- 
ing down the old trade routes to the distant East, 
and even now the bold sailors of Western Europe were 
beginning to brave unknown seas in search of a water 
route to India. 

97. The Compass. Among the inventions that en- 
couraged seamen to venture into the unknown was the 
mariner's compass. With its faithful "finger" always 
pointing toward the north pole, the sailor need not fear 
to venture forth. The compass was known to man 
centuries before the hardy sailors of Western Europe 
began to use it. In fact, it is said that Marco Polo 
brought with him from China a knowledge of this faithful 
little instrument. It is doubtful whether Columbus and 
the explorers after him would have ventured to cross 




GUTENBERG PRESS 



250 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




the mighty ocean to America without its help. But 
while we know and trust the compass without question, 

the sailors of the fifteenth cen- 
tury many times doubted this 
"faithful friend" of the seamen. 
98. Discovery of Gunpowder 
and Invention of Cannon. No 
one knows when gunpowder was 
first discovered. It is really a 
mixtvire of charcoal, sulphur, 
and saltpeter. Some have de- 
clared that it came from the Far 
East, while others assert it was 
brought to Europe by the Mo- 
hammedans. Cannon, too, were 
an important invention, which 
of course would be of no value 
without gunpowder. These two inventions have pro- 
duced wonderful changes among men. 

After they came into use the walled town and the 
great castle were doomed, since they afforded poor pro- 
tection. The knight with his great load of armor could 
not stand against cannon, and the common man had a 
chance to win in battle. When the knights and the 
castles were gone, a 
hard blow had been 
struck at feudalism. 
But how different 
were the cannon then 
from the mighty guns 
belching forth death now! At first they shot only 
stone balls, and not much farther than a good bowman 



EARLY COMPASS 

The points were dt signaled 6 v Ihe usual 
{Italian) names of the winds, as 
Levante, east ; Sirocco, south- 
east, and so on 




ANCIENT CANNON 



Inventions in the Fifteenth Century 



251 



sent his arrow. Now. the terrible sixteen-inch gun sends 
its ball plunging for a distance of several miles, spread- 
ing destruction in its 
path. 

SUGGESTIONS 

INTENDED TO HELP 

THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts. 

/ . Merchants and trav- 
elers brought news of 
the Far East. 2. For 
twenty years Marco 
Polo visited far eastern 
countries. 3. How the 
Polos convinced the 
people of Venice that 
they were telling the 
truth. 4. Marco wrote 
his great book while in 
prison. 5. What great 
inventions the people 
of the fifteenth century 
did not know about, and what they did know about. 6. The 
great inventions that helped toward the discovery of America. 

Study Questions, i. Which were the travelers that people 
loved most to hear? 2. Prove that Marco Polo was one of 
this kind. j. Tell, in your own language, what the Polos did 
in Asia. 4. Why did they hold a great feast on their return 
home? 5. Explain how Marco wrote his book. 6. How did 
it probably help Columbus? 7. In what sort of "houses" did 
men probably live at first? 8. What things do you imagine 
they had in their holes in the ground? g. What sort of clothes 
did they wear? 10. What difference is there between the way 
men make books now and the way they were made in Marco 
Polo 's time ? //. What makes the compass always point to the 
north star? 12. How have gunpowder and cannon influenced 
war? jj. How did fighting with guns help to make a knight 
no better than a common soldier? 




A PRESENT-DAY SIEGE CUN 

These huge guns can carry a distance of 17 miles, 

sending projectiles with such force that few of 

the xvorld's fortifications would be able 

1,0 uithsland them 



252 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Suggested Readings. Brooks, Story of Marco Polo, chaps. 
I, 2, 14, 20, and 21; Knox, The Travels of Marco Polo for Boys 
and Girls; Old South Leaflets, Vol. II, No. 32, Marco Polo's 
Account of Japan and China; Forman, Stories of Usefid 
Inventions. 



THE RACE FOR INDIA BEGINS BETWEEN 
PORTUGAL AND SPAIN 

99. Prince Henry, the Navigator, Seeks an All-Water 
Route to India. We have said that the Turks broke up 
the old Italian trade routes to India. Prince Henry of 
Portugal determined to find an all-water route to the Far 
East. He first opened a sort of school for sea captains 
and sailors, and here gathered many wise teachers of 
geography and of subjects bearing on the sea and the 
art of sailing ships. He gave his work a practical turn 
by sending sea captains down the west coast of Africa 
to find out about an all-water route to India. There 
had been stories, of the long ago, about men who had 
sailed around Africa, and into the Indian Ocean. Prince 
Henry was now determined to have his men find out if 
these stories were true. 

At last, after several trials, a great captain returned 
with the news that his vessel had succeeded in passing one 
of the most dangerous capes of that coast. Prince Henry 
rewarded him and urged his other great sea captains to push 
farther on. Other attempts carried the brave sailors 
around to the Gulf of Guinea, but they were dismayed at 
finding that the coast of iVfrica again turned southward. 
This seemed to prove what some geographers taught, 
that Africa extended so far south no man could sail 
around it. Stories of the "gold coast" aroused their 




H -a 



2 54 The Story_ oj Old Europe and Young America 

greed, however, and finally Bartholomeu Dias rounded 
the Cape of Good Hope and looked out upon the Indian 
Ocean (i486). The old stories of men sailing around 
Africa were true, but Prince Henry had been long in 
his grave before they were proved. 

Vasco da Gama, a wise and brave sailor, set out from 
Portugal (1497) and reached the long-sought India by 
an all- water route around the Cape of Good Hope. 
Portugal was happy, but the way to the Far East was 
far longer than any one had imagined. 

100. Christopher Columbus, Seeking India, Finds 
America. Already another man, Columbus, had thought 
he could find India and the East by a shorter way. He 
sailed to the westward to test his plan. The land he 
discovered was America, but he returned fully con- 
vinced that he had reached the land of his dreams. 

Da Gama's voyage to India was indeed a great event, 
but the discovery of America proved far greater. The 
Atlantic rose in importance above the Mediterranean. 
The eyes of all Europe gradually turned westward. The 
rich cities of Italy fell into decay, while the great ports 
on the Atlantic began a growth which has never ceased. 
The sailors of Genoa and Venice were already leaving for 
Portugal and Spain. 

We have already learned about the wonderful work 
of Genoa in the Crusades and in the wars with Venice. 
Now we see this old city as the birthplace of Christopher 
Columbus. He spent his boyhood in this old town of 
ships and sailors. Every day, as the boys played along 
the wharves, they listened to wonderful tales of adven- 
ture such as only the sailors of that old time could tell. 
Columbus was eager to go to sea. As he was growing 



The Race for India 255 

to manhood a kinsman often took him on the Mediter- 
ranean, where they had to face storms and sea robbers. 

We have also seen how the breaking up of the trade 
routes to the East sent sailors flocking to Portugal and 
Spain, where great events were taking place. Bartholo- 
mew, a brother of Columbus, was already living in Lisbon, 
whence he went on the great voyage with Dias around 
the Cape of Good Hope. 

Columbus, too, hastened to Lisbon, and soon was in 
the midst of great happenings. Prince Henry, though 
long dead, had so aroused Portugal that she was doing 
her best to uncover the ancient route to India. 

Columbus had figured out that the world is round 
and that he could find India or Japan by sailing directly 
westward. From all the charts, maps, and books of 
travel he could obtain he reached the conclusion that 
the East Indies were where the West Indies really are. 
The blunder in geography proved useful. For what king 
would have granted aid to sail twelve thousand miles, 
even though Columbus had wanted to go? 

loi. Columbus Seeks Aid. Tradition tells us that, 
still loving the land of his birth, Columbus gave Genoa 
the first opportunity to be the discoverer of America, 
but she refused. Then, armed with all the proof he could 
gather, he put his plans before the King of Portugal, 
only to have them rejected. 

He now made his way to Spain, where he hoped for 
better treatment. But Spain was busy fighting the 
Moors — Mohammedans who had come from Africa. 
Spain's king and queen did indeed give him a hearing 
before their wise men: some were for him and some 
were against what they called the wild scheme of a 



256 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



madman. Columbus had to wait many years. He grew 
tired. His money was almost gone, and his clothes were 

shabby. He was a 
man of noble bear- 
ing, but the boys on 
the street tapped 
their heads when 




COLUMBUS EXPLAINING HIS PLANS TO THE 
PRIOR AND TO PINZON 



to say, 
crazy." 

He resolved to 
go to France. On 
his way, near the 
harbor of Palos, he 
stopped at a con- 
vent to ask food 
and drink for his little son Diego. The old prior, the 
head of the convent, was struck by his dignified and noble 
appearance. He asked questions, and the answers of 
Columbus led him to send for Pinzon, a great sea captain, 
and others from the port of Palos. There in the room 
of that little convent was told to eager ears the tale of 
Columbus' ambition, of the proofs he had gathered, and 
of the misfortunes he had met. 

No time was to be lost. The prior hastened to Queen 
Isabella and begged her, for her own sake and for the 
glory of Spain, not to allow Columbus to depart. She 
sent for him, and entered into an agreement by which 
she pledged her jewels, it is said, to the great v/ork of 
discovery. Columbus was happy in the opportunity 
he now had to prove his point. He had w^aited and 
worked nearly twenty years for it. 



The Race for India 



257 



102. The Discovery of America. It was a sad time 
in the old town of Palos when the queen commanded its 
sailors to go with Columbus where man had never sailed 
before. Three vessels and ninety sailors set out on 
August 3, 1492. The Santa Maria, the largest ship, was 
ninety feet long by twenty broad. On this ship Columbus 
raised his banner as admiral. The Pinta Vv-as smaller, a 
faster sailer, and commanded by that great sea captain, 
Pinzon. The Nina, called "the baby" from its name, 
was the smallest and was intended for use in shallow 
waters, for running near the shore or up narrow rivers. 

They sailed directly southwest to the Canary Islands. 
After repairs they plimged westward into an unknown 
sea. As the Canaries faded from sight many of the sailors 
broke dow^i and cried. They never expected to see 




COLUMBUS BEFORE THE WISE MEN OF SPAIN 

After painting by the Bohemian artist, Vaczlov Brozik, in MclropolUan 
Museum, New York 

Spain again. The imaginary terrors of the deep were too 
much for them. The trade winds caught them up, and 



258 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

wafted them along. "How shall we ever get back?" 
they cried. Then came vast fields of seaweed, often 
stretching out farther than they could see. They feared 
sunken rocks, or that they might run aground. Even 
that faithful friend, the compass, began to vary from 
its first position. 

Finally they plotted to throw Columbus overboard, but 
he quieted their fears by pointing out the signs of and — 
the green branches they had seen upon the water, and 
the flocks of birds which now and then came flying by. 

One beautiful evening, after the sailors had sung 
their vesper hymn, Columbus made a speech, pointing 
out how God had favored them with clear skies and 
gentle winds, and telling them that they were so near 




THE COLUMBUS CARAVELS 

From the recotistructed vessels built by Spain and presented to the 
World's Columbian Exposition in l8g3 

land the ships must not sail any more after midnight. 
That very night, far across the darkening waters, a 



The Race for India 



259 



light was seen to rise and fall, as if carried on land. In 
a few hours the Pinta fired a joyful gun telling that land 




THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS 



had been found. All was excitement on board, and not 
an eye was closed that night. Overcome with excite- 
ment, some of the sailors threw their arms around Colum- 
bus' neck and cried for verj^ joy. Others fell upon their 
knees and begged pardon, and promised faithful obedi- 
ence to his every wish. 

On Friday morning, October 12, 1492, Columbus 
landed on the shores of the New World — on an island of 
the Bahama group. He was dressed in a robe of bright 
red and carried the royal flag of Spain. Around him 
were gathered his officers and sailors, dressed in their best 
clothes and carrying flags, banners, and crosses. They 



26o The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



fell upon their knees and kissed the earth, and with tears 
of joy streaming down their cheeks they gave thanks. 




COLUMBUS ENTERING BARCELONA, SPAIN. ON THE RETURN FROM 
HIS FIRST VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY 

Columbus drew his sword and after the manner of that 
age declared the land belonged to Spain. 

The natives, frightened by the strange scene, were 
looking on from behind bush and tree. They imagined 
that the ships had come up out of the sea or down from 
the sky, and that Columbus and his men were gods. 
Columbus was almost as much mistaken as w^ere the 
natives. He believed the people were "Indians," that is, 
people of India, and it was many years before the Euro- 
peans knew better. 

Columbus and his men were deeply disappointed, for 
instead of rich people wearing all sorts of fine clothes and 



The Race for India 



261 



ornaments of gold and silver, they saw only half-naked 
savages, with painted faces, living in rude huts. 

After a few days of exploration Columbus came upon 
Cuba, the largest island he had seen. He thought this 
was surely Japan. His ship was wrecked, and the 
Pinta had gone he knew not where. 

103. The Return to Spain. Collecting gold and silver 
articles, plants and birds, animals and Indians, Columbus 
began his voyage home, January 4, 1493. After terrific 
storms he reached Palos in the spring, when nature is at 
its best in southern Spain. 

The joy in that old seaport! The people, who had 
given them up as lost, now ran shouting through the 
streets. The king and queen sent for Columbus. What 
a journey ! The villages and 
country roads swarmed with 
people anxious to get sight 
of the wonderful man and of 
the products he had brought. 
The Indians were the center 
of all eyes. 

Columbus entered the 
city a hero. The very house- 
tops, to say nothing of the 
streets and windows, were 
crowded with happy people. 
He went directly to the 
court of Isabella. As the 

King ana Queen arose, l,o- ^y^^ monument to columbus at 
lumbus fell upon his knees c.enoa, ITAL^ 

and kissed their hands. When he had finished telling 
his story, the people, shouting, followed him to his 
18 




262 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




MAP SHOWING THE DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN' 



home. How like a dream it all appeared to the man, 
who, only a year before, was begging bread from those 

very people! 

104. Other 
Voyages to Am- 
erica. All Spain 
was eager for a 
second voyage. 
Now every port 
was anxious to 
furnish ships and 
sailors. Fifteen 
hundred people sailed in seventeen fine ships to search 
out the rich cities of their imagination (1493). After 
four years of disappointment, they returned to Spain. 
They had not found the riches of India. 

On his third voyage Columbus sailed along the north- 
ern shores of South America, but did not know he had 
found a continent. When he reached the West Indies 
the officers put him in chains and sent him back, broken- 
hearted, to Spain. Isabella, his friend, set him free and 
started him on his last voyage to America (1502). He 
met with shipwreck and returned, deeply disappointed 
that he had not reached the Indies with their fabled 
wealth. He died soqn after, never thinking that America 
lay between him and his dreams. Spain was so busy 
with exploration that she took little note of the passing 
of this great man, and it remained for America to do 
fitting honor to his memory in the great Columbian 
Exposition held in Chicago (1893). 

105. Voyages of the Northmen. Columbus never 
knew that he had discovered a new continent. Had he 



The Race for India 



263 



known it, he probably would not have realized that it 
was a part of the same continent that had been discovered 
many years before (1000) by some of the bold sea-rovers 
from the North. In our study of England we have 
already learned about these hardy Danes and Norwe- 
gians, who were called Vikings. Some of the boldest 
of the Vikings settled in the snow-clad island of Iceland. 
One of them, named Eric the Red, sailed farther away 
to the still colder island which we now know as Green- 
land. Later, many Northmen went to that new land. 
Finally Leif Ericson, son of Eric the Red, and some 
companions sailed around to the south and discovered 
the coast of North 
America. He was af- 
terward called ' ' Leif 
the Lucky. ' ' The exact 
place where the North- 
men settled for a time 
is not known, but it is 
supposed to be some- 
where in New Eng- 
land. They were so 
delighted with the new 
land, where beautiful 
flowers grew and birds 
sang gayly among the 
trees, that they would 
gladly have made it 
their home. Finding 
vines with grapes, they 
called the new land Vinland. But there was one great 
obstacle to making it a permanent abode. Brave as 




THE LANDING OF LEIF ERICSON IN VINLAND 



264 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

they were in venturing out into an unknown sea; they 
were no match for the savage Indians in a land fight. 
For eight or ten years the Vikings continued their voyages 
to the new land, but the growing hostility of the Indians 
led them to abandon it. They sailed away never to return. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. The famous old "school" of navi- 
gation established by Prince Henry. 2. News from the Gulf 
of Guinea and from the "gold coast. " j. The voyages of Dias 
and Da Gama. 4. Columbus' dream and its consequences. 
5. Genoa, and the boyhood of Columbus. 6. Columbus goes 
to Portugal and then to Spain. 7. Visits Palos on his way to 
France. 8. The queen's pledge, and the preparations for the 
voyage, g. The first voyage, and its events. 10. What the 
Indians thought, and what Columbus thought. 11. Colum- 
bus' reception at Palos and at the court. 12. His treatment 
by Spaniards, and his death. 13. The Northmen discover a 
new world but make no use of it. 

, Study Questions, i. Vv^hat caused Prince Henry to start 
his "school, " and what was his purpose? 2. What was Colum- 
bus' dream? 3. Prove that Genoa was a good place for a 
sailor to be bom. 4. What causes sent Columbus to Portugal? 
to Spain? 5. Why was the convent near Palos a good place 
for Columbus to stop? 6. What were the motives leading 
Columbus to make his voyage? 7. Tell the imagined feelings 
of Columbus and his men when landing. 8. Why was Colum- 
bus disappointed? g. What effect did his discovery have in 
Spain? in the rest of Europe? 10. What did he not know when 
he died? 11. Who were the first to discover America ? 72. What 
name was given to the new land? zj. Why were Marco Polo's 
travels of more importance than those of the Vikings? 

Suggested Readings. Beazley, Prince Henry the Navigator. 
Columbus: Hart, Colonial Children, 4-6; Wright, Children's 
Stories in American History, 38-60; Higginson, Young Folks' 
Book of American Explorers, 19-52; Brooks, The True Story of 
Christopher Columbus, 1-103, 1 12-172. The Northmen: Glas- 
cock, Stories of Columbia, 7-9; Higginson, Young Folks' Book of 
American Explorers, 3-1,5. 



Spanish Explorers of the New World 



265 



SPANISH EXPLORERS OF THE NEW WORLD 

106. Why America Was Named for Americus Ves- 
pucius. The New World should have been named for 




THE SPANISH VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY TO NORTH AMERICA 

Columbus, and it is, sometimes, called the "Land of 
Columbia." History, however, takes the name of this 
fair country from one who, probably, least deserved it — 
Americus Vespucius. 



266 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

It is not certain how many voyages he made to this 
country, when he made them, where he made them, or 
that he ever commanded an expedition. Why then should 
he be honored by having his name given to America? 

It is said that Vespucius coasted along South America 
as far south as Brazil. He wrote letters telling his 
friends very fully about what he had seen. He declared 
that the regions he saw went far beyond any parts of the 
Old World in animals, plants, and men, and that the 
climate of these regions was better than anything he 
had ever known. 

The printing press spread this story of Americus. 
One day a professor of geography in what is now France 
proposed that this new region, which Americus described 
so fully, be called "Amerige." The suggestion was taken 
up, and after a short time that name was applied to the 
whole of the New Word. 

107. Balboa Discovers the Pacific. Spaniards were 
ransacking every corner of the New World in search of 
adventure. One of them, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, had 
gone on a trading expedition and settled in Santo Do- 
mingo, but he failed to make a success of his new venture. 
Burning to recover his lost fortune, he set out for the 
Isthmus of Panama. When he reached it the Indians 
pointed the way toward a mighty sea whose sands hid 
great stores of gold. The Indians had already learned 
how to get rid of Spaniards! 

In September, 15 13, Balboa and his men set out to 
cross the Isthmus to find this great body of water. 
Through forests so dense that the sun could not shine, 
they made their slow, toilsome way to the mountains. 
These they climbed amid great hardships. They reached 



Spanish Explorers of the New World 



267 



the top one day, and, far to the westward, Balboa saw 
the mighty sea. Stirred by the sight, he and his men 
climbed down the western slopes and in four days were 
standing on its shores. When the tide rose, Balboa drew 
his sword, rushed into its waters, and took possession 
in the name of the king and queen of Spain. He called 
it the South Sea, but afterwards it was named the Pacific. 

By this adventure Balboa helped to convince Europe 
that Columbus had discovered a new world. It remained 
for Magellan to prove that India, or the Far East, might 
indeed be reached by sailing w^estward. 

108. Magellan Begins His Great Voyage (1519). 




After an engravint^ tjy De Bry 



A VIEW OF LISBON HARBOR, WITH THE SHIPPING AS IT Vi'AS IN 
THE D.4YS OF MAGELLAN 

Though a Portuguese by birth, Magellan sailed under 
the flag of Spain. Five vessels composed his fleet. He 



268 TJie Story of Old Europe and Young America 



made direct for South America, where he found winter, 
just beginning, although it was only Easter time! 

Magellan's sailors wanted to return home, and 
rebelled openly, but he suppressed them. One ship 
was wrecked during the winter. When spring came in 
August, he sailed farther south along the coast of Pata- 
gonia and entered the strait now bearing his name. The 
crew of another ship rebelled, seized their captain, and 
sailed back to Spain. The other sailors begged Magellan 
to return also. "I will go on if we have to eat the leather 
off the ships' yards," was his famous reply. 

He did sail on until he reached the quiet sea to which 
he gave the name Pacific. In November the three 
remaining ships boldly turned their prows toward India, 

across the trackless 
ocean, which no man 
had 'ever sailed before. 
After long weeks their 
food supply gave out, 
and then Magellan's 
statement literally 
came true. The sailors 
did eat the leather 
from the ships' yards 
like hungry dogs. 

Finally they 
reached the Philippine 
Islands, where Magel- 
lan lost his life in 
defending his sailors 
from the natives. Sadly the remainder, now reduced to 
twenty men in a single vessel, made their slow way 




FERDINAND MAGELLAN 

From the portrait designed and engraved by 
Ferdinand Selma in lySi) 



Spanish Explorers of the New World 



269 



across the Indian Ocean, around Africa, and home (1521). 

Five vessels full of enthusiastic sailors began the 
voyage. Now but twenty 
half-starved men in one 
vessel, their leader gone, 
were left to tell the tale 
of that wonderful first 
voyage around the world. 
This voyage proved that 
Columbus was right in 
thinking the world round, 
and that "India" could 
be reached by sailing west- 
ward. 

109. Cortes Invades 
Mexico (1519). While 
Magellan was making his 
great voyage across the 
Pacific, Hernando Cortes 
had found one of the 
richest cities in the world — Mexico. He took twelve 
ships, landed on the coast of what is now Mexico, and 
sent every ship to the bottom of the sea in order to 
keep his men from deserting. 

Cortes, his men, and horses, too, were protected by 
great iron coats, and the men were armed with swords 
and guns. Besides, they had a few cannon, whose noise 
would strike terror to the hearts of the Indians, even if 
they did not kill many. 

Day after day Cortes and his men marched inland 
from the coast, fighting terrible battles with the natives. 
The Indians in Mexico were called Aztecs. Being clad 




HERNANDO CORTES 



From the portrail painted by Charles Wilson 

Peak, now in Independence Hall. 

Philadelphia 



270 The Story of Old Europe and Yotwg America 




in cotton clothes, with only bows and arrows for weapons 
and protected by leather shields, they were no match for 

the Spaniards, in their 
coats of mail. 

The Spaniards 
marched through the 
mountains passes, and 
a beautiful sight met 
their eyes. As far as 
human sight could carry, 
they beheld a charming 
valley filled with cities. 
These cities were built 
over lakes, where canals 
took the place of streets 
and canoes carried the 
people from place to 
place. 

no. A Wonderful Indian City. Cortes hastened for- 
ward, following a great road which led to a wonderful 
Indian city. Several roads ran to its center, where, in 
a great square, stood a wonderful temple, whose top 
could be reached by one hundred and fourteen steps 
running around outside. Sixty thousand people lived 
in this city. Many stone buildings with flat roofs fur- 
nished homes for them. Frequently there were flower 
gardens on the housetops. 

Cortes and his men were but a handful in this dense 
mass of people, who did not welcome them. They seized 
Montezuma, the Mexican king, and held him prisoner, 
hoping to keep the people quiet, but this act only made 
them angrier than ever. They fell upon Cortes' men 



After an old print in Gerolamo Barrzoni's 
History of the New World 

INDIAN SUN WORSHIPERS AND TEMPLE, PERU 

The Inca's followers were sun worshipers. 

Many of their temples were as large as 

those of ancient Babylon, and 

tnuch like them in form 



Spanish Explorers of the Neiu World 271 

in such vast numbers that they killed half of them 
and their horses. Cortes commanded Montezuma to 
stand upon the roof of the Spanish fort and forbid his 
people to fight. But they showed their hostility by 
casting stones and shooting arrows until they struck 
down Montezuma, and he died in a few days, a broken- 
hearted man. 

111. The Conquest of the Aztecs. Reenforced by 
soldiers from Cuba, Cortes went to battle again and 
finally, after two years, he was master of the city and of 
the Aztecs. in the country around. But Cortes was more 
than a conqueror — he was a wise governor as well. He 
rebuilt the city and in many ways tried to make it better. 
He made the city of Mexico a center of Spanish civili- 
zation. For three hundred 3^ears the mines of Mexico 
poured a constant stream of gold and silver into the lap 
of Spain. Cortes spent a large part of the fortune which 
fell to his lot in trying to improve the country. But in 
spite of the renown and wealth he brought Spain, the 
king of that country permitted him to die neglected. 

112. The Richest City in the World. Francisco 
Pizarro, another Spaniard, was ambitious to do in South 
America what Cortes had done in Mexico. He lived in 
the little town of Panama, and made an expedition along 
the western coast of South America until he reached a 
town of two thousand houses built mostly of sun-dried 
bricks with fiat tops like the houses in Mexico. He 
returned, taking with him many valuable figures made of 
gold and vases of gold and silver. He crossed the ocean 
'and told his story to the King of Spain, who made Pizarro 
governor of all the lands he might conquer, and gave 
his leading men high titles. 



272 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



Pizarro hastened home, with the good news, fitted 
out his expedition, and with banners flying and hopes 
high in the hearts of his men, sailed for Peru. There 
they marched inland through beautiful fields of flowers 
and grain. 

The men finally reached the foothills of the Andes 
Mountains. Up and up they clim-bed until they reached 
the higher regions, — where it was much colder than 
anywhere they had yet been. Over they rushed and 
down the eastern slopes, where a charming scene opened 
to their view. In a valley lay a city of ten thousand 

houses like those Cortes 
had already found in 
Mexico. Across the 
valley was the Inca, 
the ruler of the country, 
with his army. 

113. Pizarro Cap- 
tures the Inca. Her- 
nando De Soto, a brave 
captain, was sent with 
a troop of cavalry to 
invite the Inca to visit 
Pizarro. When told of 
the num.ber of his 
soldiers, Pizarro was 
troubled, but laid his 
plans in secret. The 
next day the Inca came 
with his hosts. The 
nobles carried the Inca on a gold-bedecked throne. A 
cannon was fired. It was a signal. The Spaniards 




FRANCISCO PIZARRO 

After an engraving to be found in the works of the 
great Spanish historian, Herrera 



Spanish Explorers of the Neiv World 



273 



rushed forth, and thousands of Indians fell, trying to 
save their king from the fury of the strangers. The 
Inca was a prisoner. 

To obtain his freedom, so 
the story runs, he promised 
to fill the room in which he 
was a prisoner as high as he 
could reach with gold. Pi- 
zarro accepted the offer, and 
when he had the gold cruelly 
put the ruler to death. 

114. The Spaniards Find 
Untold Wealth. The Httle iKTWfWf f' :'i^.^ ^\\n 

Spanish army now marched 
to Cuzco, the capital of Peru. 




HERNANDO DE SOTO 



After an engraving to be found in the 

7i'orks of the great Spanish 

historian, Herrera 



After days of hard fighting 
they came to the richest city 
in the world. No man had 
ever before found so much gold and silver. "Ten planks 
or bars of silver, each bar twenty feet in length, one foot 
in breadth and two inches thick," found in one place, 
showed the great riches to which Pizarro and his 
followers fell heir. 

It was too much for them. They grew jealous, and 
quarreled. A ringleader was put to death, and his friends 
broke into Pizarro 's palace and murdered him (1533). 

And in the end the millions which Spain took from 
the mines of Peru did her little good. 

115. De Soto's Expedition. Before De Soto's time 
came Ponce de Leon in Florida. He came to the New 
World searching vainly for the fountain of youth, and 
found Florida — a land of flowers as he called it (15 13). 



2 74 The Story of Old Etirope and Young America 

Hernando De Soto had already won fame in Peru. 
The King of Spain made him governor of Cuba and 
Florida. He was longing to repeat in Florida what 
Pizarro had done in Peru, and hundreds of Spanish 
noblemen wanted to enlist under his banner. In 1539 
De Soto, with nine vessels carrying many soldiers, twelve 
priests, six hundred horses, and a herd of swine, landed 
in Florida from Cuba. 

De Soto spent his first winter on Apalachee Bay. 
In the spring he marched north to Georgia, hunting 
for a country that he had heard about, ruled by a 
woman. The mountains caused him to turn south as 
far as the village of Mavilla (Mobile). Here he suffered 
great losses at the hands of the Indians, but he refused 
to turn back or send for supplies and men. 

116. Discovery of the Mississippi. De Soto found 
camp for his second winter in northern Mississippi. 
Here the Indians attacked him again. In the spring 
the Spaniards moved westward for many days, finally 
coming upon a great rushing stream — the Mississippi, 
the Indians called it (1541). 

On barges, which their own hands had built, De Soto 
and his men crossed the broad bosom of the Mississippi. 
Through dense forests that almost hid the sun they 
marched for days and days together, but found no sign 
of great riches. They crossed what is now Arkansas, 
Oklahoma, and perhaps a part of Texas. The winter of 
1642 was one of great hardship for all the men. 

In the following spring, when they reached Missis- 
sippi, De Soto was tired, and broken in health. A fever 
seized the great leader, and in a few days he died. 
His companions sadly buried him at dead of night 



Spanish Explorers of the New World 275 

beneath the waters of the mighty river he had discovered. 

Once more the fearless leaders made a dash for the 
west in the hope of finding rich treasure. They were dis- 
appointed, and returned to spend another winter on the 
banks of the Mississippi. Only half the army was now 
aHve. These men built boats, floated down the Missis- 
sippi to its mouth, and finally reached home. 

De Soto's expedition discouraged further search in 
North America for wealth such as South America pos- 
sessed, but it did extend Spanish claims to this great 
region. 

117. Coronado and the Seven Cities of Cibolo. The 
Spaniards easily believed most of the stories the Indians 
told about wonderful cities and their riches. To the 
northward the Indians pointed to the Seven Cities of 
Cibolo. 

A missionary was sent with Indians to find these 
seven cities, supposed to contain great quantities of 
treasure. The missionary saw only one from a hill. He 
feared to go nearer, and returned with wonderful tales. 

The excitement was great when the missionary's 
tales were told. The governor of Mexico prepared a 
large army and sent it forth under Coronado to conquer 
the cities. The army contained about three hundred 
of the sons of Spanish nobility. They wore coats of 
shining armor, "carried lances and swords, and were 
mounted on the finest horses Mexico could furnish. 
Many negroes and Indians were taken along as servants 
to these sons of the nobility. Others went as herders to 
drive the oxen and to care for the cows which were to be 
killed as food for the warriors. 

This army marched northward with high hopes. 



276 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




From a photograph 
INDIAN PUEBLO OF ADOBE, OR SUN-DRIED BRICK 



The men entered southeastern Arizona, crossing moun- 
tains and valleys. They marched into New Mexico and 

soon found the 
first one of the 
seven cities. It 
proved to be 
nothing but an 
Indian pueblo 
with its flat roofs. 
The houses w^ere 
entered by lad- 
ders, and had very 
small windows, if 
any. The people were poorly dressed. They raised a 
poor sort of corn, beans, and melons. They also made 
pottery and wore blankets, as they do now. These 
Indians were probably the Zunis of New Mexico. 

118. Discovery of the Grand Cafion. In their search 
the army had divided. Some had gone to explore the 
Gulf of Upper California and others had found that 
wonder of wonders, the Grand Cafion. As they stood 
upon the plateau-like banks and looked far down into 
its mighty depths, a distance of over six thousand feet, 
or more than a mile, they saw the muddy Colorado 
rushing along. As they gazed upon this wonderful work 
of nature, they might have imagined they could see the 
gray walls of some giant castle, or the red stone of frowning 
forts built in that far-off time when the gods did battle. 
Coronado spent his first winter not far from the 
present city of Albuquerque. He forced the Indians to 
give their houses to his men, and to furnish them with a 
supply of blankets. 



opposition to Slavery; the Founding of Missions 277 

119. Discover Great Herds of Crooked-Back Oxen. 

A fresh story told of a wonderful city took Coronado and 
his men hundreds of miles to the northeast. For many 
days they pushed onward, crossing New Mexico, the 
Pan Handle of Texas, and a portion of Oklahoma into 
Kansas. Here they found, not a wonderful city, but 
great prairies with their vast oceans of waving grass. 
Upon these grassy prairies fed countless herds of buffalo 
— crooked-back oxen, the Spaniards called them. 

They did see a new kind of Indian. He was more 
savage than those in the south, and lived in a kind of 
tent-like house made by skins fastened to poles. 

120. Meaning of Coronado's Expedition. A year 
later, disappointed, with fortune gone, with many of his 
gay companions not returning, Coronado reported to 
the governor of Mexico and proved that these wonderful 
cities were not to be found. His report that this region 
was hardly fit for settlers we know to be false, and that 
there is little of gold or silver in it is not entirely true. 
They were there, but he did not find them. Coronado's 
and De Soto's expeditions convinced Spaniards that 
there was little hope of finding gold in the main parts of 
North America. 

OPPOSITION TO SLAVERY; THE FOUNDING 
OF MISSIONS 

121. Las Casas, the Enemy of Human Slavery. 

The Spanish grandees who led expeditions generally 
thought themselves above work. Hence they early 
made slaves of the Indians. But the Indians were not 
used to working all day long, either in the mines or in 
the broiling sun. They were accustomed to a great 
19 



278 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




LAS CASAS PRAYING FOR THE INDIANS 



deal more freedom than were even the Spaniards. The 
natural result was that the Indians, men and women, 

sickened and died. 
Among the 
Spaniards there 
was one man who 
set his face stern- 
ly against making 
slaves of the In- 
dians. His name 
was Las Casas. 
He devoted his 
whole life to the 
Indians, so that 
the Spanish monarchs called him their "Universal Pro- 
tector." From the writings of Las Casas we see how 
hard was the lot of the Indians. "The main care was 
to send the men to work in the gold mines, and to 
send the women to . . . till the ground. . . . The men 
perished in the gold mines with hunger and [from hard] 
labor, the women perished in the fields. ... As for the 
blows which they gave them with whips, cudgels, and 
their fists ... I could be hardly able to make . . . 
narrations of those things. ..." 

Las Casas was a monk, a just man who loved his 
neighbor as himself. He tried to influence the Spaniards 
to do away with Indian slavery, but all in vain. He 
went to Spain and appealed to the monarch in person, 
but the high Spanish officers were not in sympathy 
with his ideas. He continued his battle for the Indian 
slaves as long as he lived, and had the government 
officials backed him up, as they should have done. 



opposition to Slavery; the Founding of Missions 279 



there would have been far less suffering among the 
red men. 

The Spaniard had to have help to do his work on the 
great plantations in the West Indies, in Mexico, and 
in Central America. After the Indians proved unfit he 
sought the negroes in Africa. Spain became, in the 
sixteenth century (i 500-1600), the greatest slave trader 
among the nations of Europe. It was easy, therefore, 
for the Spaniards in America to get all the black men 
they wanted. 

122. Missions from Peru to California. The great 
majority of the Spaniards who came to America were 
bent upon filling 
their pockets with 
gold and upon find- 
ing adventures that 
would test the cour- 
age of a true knight. 
But among them 
were some who came 
for religion's sake. 
These sought out the 
natives and went 
among them as fol- 
lowers of the lowly 
Jesus, trying to teach 
them the simpler 
truths about God and 
the worship of him 
as a Supreme Being. 

All this was hard to do. To aid the work, they set 
up a church and a school, called a "mission," among 




THE OLD SPANISH MISSION OF SANTA BARBARA 



2 8o The Siory of Old Europe and Young America 

the different tribes. They taught a few of the young 
people to read and write. To all of the Indians they 
sought to be examples of what a person should be and 
do. They taught, besides, that the tribes should live 
in peace with each other, and should engage in peaceful 
occupations instead of in war. 

These mission communities were established from 
Peru to California. Their people were mostly farmers, 
herdsmen, and workers about the mission. In some 
villages of the more ambitious kind, the missionaries 
built schools. They taught the young Indian, or tried 
to teach him, habits of industry; how to work regularly 
and steadily at whatever he did. This was no easy task 
for the Indians, whose fathers and mothers, for genera- 
tions, had followed the "happy-go-lucky" mode of 
getting a living. 

Among the trades learned by the young Indians were 
the making of the clothes they wore, carpentry, so that 
they might construct their rude houses, preparing furni- 
ture for the home, shoemaking, herding cattle, and so on. 

Long years before the first college in the English 
colonies was established (1636) the Spaniards in Peru 
and in Mexico had built colleges. They also led the way 
in setting up printing presses. But neither college nor 
printing press grew in importance as compared with those 
in the English colonies. 

The natural result of mingling w^ith the Indians was 
a closer friendship and fellowship. This closer friendship 
resulted in Spaniards and Indians marrying each other. 
In all South America and Mexico the great majority of 
the civilized people are of mixed Spanish and Indian 
blood. 



opposition to Slavery; the Founding of Missions 281 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 
The Leading Facts, i . Why the New World was not named 
after Columbus. 2. How the printing press helped defeat 
Columbus. J. BallDoa, and the discovery of the Pacific. 

4. Columbus thought the world round, and Magellan proved it. 

5. Magellan sailed around South America into the Pacific Ocean, 
and across this new sea to the Philippine Islands, where he was 
killed. 6. His ship reached Spain — the first to sail around the 
world. 7. Cortes marched against a rich city, afterward called 
Mexico, captured the ruler and the city, and ruled it for several 
years. 8. Pizarro invaded Peru, the richest country of all 
America, and captured and put to death the ruler, g. Pizarro 
died by the hand of a Spaniard. 

Study Questions, i. What are the reasons why the New 
World was named for Americus Vespucius? 2. Imagine you 
are Balboa trying to find the Pacific. 3. What was the meaning 
of Balboa 's discovery? 4. What part of the problem of Colum- 
bus did Magellan solve? 5. Where is Patagonia, and how could 
there be signs of spring late in August? 6. What did Magel- 
lan's voyage prove, and what remained of Columbus' plans yet 
to accomplish? 7. Why did Cortes sink his ships? 8. How 
were Spaniards amied, and how were Indians armed? g. De- 
scribe the city of Mexico. 10. Who began the war, and what 
does that show about the Spaniards? //. How did the people 
and king treat Cortes? 12. How did the king reward Pizarro 
for what he was going to do? 13. What did Pizarro see in 
passing up and down the Andes? 14. Picture the Inca coming 
to visit Pizarro, and Pizarro 's reception of him. 15. What 
pledge did the Inca make? 16. Tell the story of Pizarro 's 
march to the capital. 77. Did Pizarro deserve his fate? 18. 
Why was De Soto's expedition so large at the beginning? ig. 
Was he wise or unwise in refusing to send for aid? 20. How 
often did he come back to the Mississippi? 21. Relate the 
story of Coronado. 22. What was Las Casas' occupation, 
and what did he do? 23. What was the purpose in establish- 
ing missions and schools? 

Suggested Readings. Magellan: McMurry, Pioneers on 
Land and Sea, 161-1S5; Butterworth, The Story of Magellan 
and the Discovery of the Philippines, 52-143; Ober, Ferdinand 
Magellan, 108-244. Cortes: McMurry, Pioneers on Land 
and Sea, 186-225; Hale, Stories of Advetiture, 101-126; Ober, 



282 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Hernando Cortes, Conqueror of Mexico, 24-292. Pizarro: 
Hart, Colonial Children, 12-16; Towle, Young Folks' Heroes of 
History, Vol. II: Pizarro; His Adventures and Conquests, 27-327. 

FRANCE AGAINST SPAIN IN EUROPE 
AND AMERICA 

123. French Explorations. Francis I of France and 
Charles V of Spain were often fighting with each other 
over parts of Italy. These wars kept Spain from winning 
greater possessions in North America. 

Another cause of the quarrel was the fact that the 
pope had drawn a north and south line dividing the 
non-Christian lands of the world between Spain and 
Portugal. Francis did not like this, for he was completely 
shut out. He demanded to know "by what right do they 
monopolize the earth ? Did our first father Adam make 
them his sole heirs? If so, I should like to see a copy 
of that will; and until I do, I shall feel at liberty to seize 
all the land in the New World that I can get." 

With this intention, Francis sent Verrazano, an 
Italian sea captain, to the New World to explore the 
country and prey upon the Spaniards. Verrazano sailed 
along the coast from the Carolinas to Maine, stopping, 
it is supposed, in the bay now called New York (1524). 
But he had gone too far north to meet the Spaniards. 

But King Francis was too busy making war in Italy 
to bother with occupying any part of the region explored. 

Francis had a great rival in Charles V, the King of 
Spain, who had been made Emperor of Germanyj and 
ruler of Holland and Belgium, parts of Italy, Austria, 
and of the New World. These countries were so far 
apart that they could not all act together. If they had, 
Charles V might have beaten Francis. 



France against Spain in Europe and America 283 



Francis attacked Charles in the battle of Milan in 
Italy and won his claim to that city. His great victory 
was due to a w^onderful knight called ChevaKer Bayard, 
"the knight without fear and without reproach." 

124. The Story of Chevalier Bayard. Many wonder- 
ftil stories are told about Bayard. While yet a young man 
all the knights and ladies had been called together to 
witness knighthood conferred on him for bravery and 
skill in battle. He was chosen as one of the thirteen 
Frenchmen to do battle against a like number of Germans. 
The Frenchmen won. At one time, like Horatius of old, 
he held a bridge against two hundred Spaniards, and at 
another defended his fortress with only one thousand 
knights and soldiers against thirty-five thousand. 

All men admired Bayard, so fine looking was he and 
so noble was 
his behavior 
toward the 
unfortunate 
whom the re- 
sults of war 
placed in his 
hands. Twice 
Bayard was 
made a pris- 
oner of war, 
but twice he 
was set free by 
his generous 
captors with- 
out a demand for ransom. Generosity begets generosity. 

In one of the great wars between Francis and Charles 




\fter De Neuville s drawing in Guizot's History of Frrnct 
CHEVALIER BAYARD AND THE DUKE OF BOURBON 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



the gallant Bayard received his death wound. He sat 
with his back propped against a tree. The Duke of 

Bourbon, a great 
French general who 
had deserted the cause 
of his king, came up 
to Bayard and ex- 
pressed the deepest 
sympathy with the 
noble knight. "Pity 
not me," said the 
hero. "I am dying 
as an honest man 
should die. I have 
rather reason to pity 
you, when I see you 
thus in arms against 
your king, your coun- 
try, and your oath." 
Bayard held the hilt 
of his sword before 
his eyes, confessed his sins to a friend, and did not cease 
to pray until his death. 

These wars in Europe so occupied the time of both 
kings that they had less opportunity to make settlements 
in America. 

125. The French Claim to North America. Just ten 
years after Bayard's death (1534), Jacques Cartier, 
sailing from a port of France, reached the bleak shores 
of Newfoundland, lately become the fishing grounds of 
Europe. His frequent voyages gave France her claim 
to North America. 




JACQUES CARTIER 

Fr-om an engraving after the original portrait at 
Hotel de Ville, St. Malo, France 



France against Spain in Europe and America 285 



During one of these trips he discovered the St. Law- 
rence, built a fort where Quebec now stands, and spent 
the winter there. He made his way in rowboats for 
many miles up the river to a place which he named 
"Mont Real," now Montreal. Here he found the great 
rapids of the St. Lawrence barring his further progress. 
Cartier called them La Chine (China) rapids, for he 
believed that river was the pathway to China. During 
all his voyages to North America he kept in mind the 
idea that he might become famous, and his country, too, 
by discovering a northwest passage to the Far East. 
It was the dream of all sea captains sailing to America 
during the sixteenth century, that by some stroke of good 
fortune they might thus immortalize themselves. 

But Canada was an ice-bound region compared with 
sunny, smiling France, and Cartier had lost a part of 
his crew from sickness caused by the cold weather. 
Frenchmen were 
not enthusiastic 

over Canada, for ^'^^ ^ 'S f/ \'^\;^ ^"^^ 

they had not yet 
learned that it was 
the greatest fur- 
bearing country 

in the world, con- - J^''^~ A^k^^^^^'^^F^^''^^ 
sequently no per- -^A^f^'m^^^^^^^^^^^&k^ 
manent settlement 11^^^^^^ 
was made. 

126. Huguenot 
Colony in Florida. 
More than a quarter of a century after this time, the 
followers of Calvin, called Huguenots among the French, 




From Lemoyae ia De Br; 
FORT CAROLINE 

The site of this fort is in doubt, some historians placing 

it near St. John's Bluff, others at a place 

called Battle Bluff 



286 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

decided to plant a settlement in sunny Florida. Francis I 
was dead and religious wars had split the French people. 
Admiral Coligny, the great Huguenot leader, planned the 
colony in Florida as a home for the people of his own way 
of worship. In 1564 three ships laden with Huguenots 
and provisions sailed for Florida, and found a place for 
their colony at the rnouth of the St. Johns River (Fort 
Caroline). But like the members of other first expedi- 
tions, many of the people were unfit to begin the hard 
work of making homes in the New World. Instead of 
clearing the ground and planting and tilling the soil, they 
spent the time seeking mines of gold and silver, and in 
hunting the Spaniards. 

King Philip of Spain was angry when he heard of the 
doings of this body of "heretics." He immediately sent 
Menendez, a bold leader, to occupy Florida and attack 
the Frenchmen. Menendez planted his settlement and 
named it St. Augustine (1565). This settlement is 
famous as the first permanent one within the limits of 
the United States. 

This done, Menendez started to find the Frenchmen, 
about fifty miles away. He spared the women and 
children, but many of the men he promptly put to death. 
King Philip's cruelty is clearly seen in the message he 
sent to Menendez : ' ' Say to him that as to those he has 
killed he has done well; and as to those he has spared, 
they shal'l*^e . set to labor in the galleys." 

This was the end of the French Huguenot settlement 
in America, but in after years hundreds of Huguenots 
emigrated to America and settled in the various towns 
of the English colonies, especially in Charleston, Boston, 
and New York. 



y 



France against Spain in Europe and America 287 

From the Huguenots came some of the bravest and 
most famous men in America. 

127. Champlain Founds New France (1608). Samuel 
de Champlain was a son of France, born of noble parents 
and bred to the life of a soldier. He laid the founda- 
tion of New France at Quebec. Wherever he went in 
America he made fast friends of the Indians, for he began 
to see the great stream of riches that the fvir trade would 
turn into the lap of France. 

He joined a war party of Algonquins going to attack 
the Iroquois, or Five Nations, living to the southward 
in what is now New York. They paddled their canoes 
up the mighty St. Lawrence, and on the Richelieu to a 
beautiful lake. What strange feelings he must have had 
as his canoe glided out upon the surface of a body of 
water far greater than any in his ow^n beloved France! 

One evening, near where the ruins of Ticonderoga 
now are, they beheld the war canoes of the hated Iroquois. 
The next day both parties drew up in battle array. The 
Algonquins opened their ranks, and Champlain stood 
forth. The Iroquois gazed in wonder upon the first 
European warrior they had ever seen. Champlain 
leveled his musket, and fired. Two chiefs fell. Another 
report rang through the woods, and the boldest warriors 
in North America fled in confusion. 

There was great rejoicing among the Algonquins. 
This one battle made Champlain a hero. In the next 
few years he and the Algonquins frequently invaded the 
hunting grounds of the Iroquois, thus gaining their 
undying hatred for everything French. 

Champlain lived in Canada many years, working 
for the good of his native land. He encouraged the 



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France against Spain in Europe and America 289 

missionaries, settled disputes between hostile tribes, 
fostered the fur trade, and urged the king to send out 
settlers for New France. Worn out with toil and travel, 
far away from kindred and native land, Champlain died 
at Quebec on Christmas Day, 1635. 

128. New France Solidly Built. In after days the 
French king took a deeper interest in New France and 
began to build a chain of forts from the Gulf of Mexico 
up the Mississippi, to join those leading from the St. 
Lawrence. Thus, in spite of Spain, French power was 
so firmly planted in America that only a great war could 
break its hold. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. Francis I of France and Charles V 
of Spain fight in Europe. 2. What Francis said about the 
pope's line. j. The career of Ba^^ard. 4. What Verrazano 
and Cartier did. 5. Coligny's colonists murdered by the 
Spaniards. 6. Huguenots settle in America. 7. Champlain 
founds New France, and treats with the Indians on the St. 
Lawrence. 8. Earns the hatred of the Iroquois by taking part 
in war against them. g. Champlain, the Father of New 
France. 

Study Questions, i. How did Spain lose in America by 
her wars in Europe? 2. Tell what reason the pope could find 
for giving the greater portion of the New World to Spain, and 
explain the effect on other nations, j. Tell the story of Bay- 
ard. 4. What great idea carried the French up the St. Law- 
rence? 5. What proof can you give that the King of Spain 
was pleased with what Menendez did? 6. Where among the 
English settlements did the Huguenots go? 7. Can you name 
any descendants of the Huguenots in America? 8. Who was 
Champlain? q. Tell the story of his first battle with the Iro- 
quois. 10. What did Champlain accomplish? 

Suggested Readings. Wright, Children s Stories in Ameri- 
can History, 269-280; McMurry, Pioneers on Land and Sea, 
Stories of the Eastern States and of Ocean Explorers, 1-34- 



290 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



ENGLAND THE RIVAL OF SPAIN IN 
EUROPE AND AMERICA 

129. John Cabot Seeks a Shorter Route to India and 
Finds North America. When stingy old Henry VII 

realized the 
greatness of 
the discovery 
of Columbus, 
he was, no 
doubt, a bit 
sorry that he 
had refused 
him aid. But 
in the old sea- 
port town of 
Bristol, Eng- 
land, lived 
many English 

sailors. Among them was John Cabot, who was born in 
Columbus' own town and later had gone to Venice. But, 
after a great deal of experience on the Mediterranean, he 
finally settled in Bristol. 

John Cabot agreed with Columbus that the world 
is round, and thought that he could make his name and 
fame by discovering a northwest passage to India. Only 
f.ve years after Columbus reached the New World, Cabot 
made his trip to what is believed to be the present Cape 
Breton (1497). 

We are not sure of the region, but somewhere on this 
bleak land he planted the flags of Venice and of England 
side by side, and took possession in the name of England. 




THE LANDING OF CABOT 

Cabol setti7ig up the flags of I'ejiice and Eugland in 
the western ■world 



England the Rival of Spain in Europe and America 291 



In May, 1498, he set out again, with more sailors 
and a larger fleet, but the way to India did not open for 
Cabot. He turned southward, probably as far as North 
Carolina. On this discovery England laid claim to the 
whole of North America. 

We have seen that Spain claimed the same region, 
but since her last expeditions under De Soto and Coro- 
nado had not turned out well, she looked to Mexico and 
Peru for gold and silver. England was slow. She did 
nothing more in America for nearly a hundred years. 

130. The Quarrel between the King of England and 
the King of Spain. After Cabot failed to find a new way to 
India, King Henry VII did nothing more to help EngHsh 
discovery. His son, Henry VIII, got into a great quar- 
rel with Charles V of 
Spain over getting a 
divorce from his wife, 
a niece of Charles. 
The pope took the 
side of Charles. Hen- 
ry was too busy with 
this quarrel to think 
much about America 

The hatred of the 
two kings for each 
other was partly due 
to religion. On the 
continent of Europe 
and in England great 
changes in religious 
belief and practice were taking place. This period, with 
its new ideas and changes, is called the Reformation. 




MARTIN LUTHER 

From an engraving of the portrait by Lucas Cranach 

in the German National Museum, 

Nuremberg 



292 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



131. The Great Leaders in the Conflict. The chief 
centers of the Reformation were among German-speaking 
peoples. There were two great leaders of this revolt, 
Luther and Calvin. Luther, the more aggressive leader, 
was a professor in the University of Wittenburg. He 
defied the pope, and was declared a heretic. Finally he 
and other leaders split the church into Protestants and 
Roman CathoHcs. The .Protestants following Luther 
were called Lutherans. Large numbers of them emi- 
grated to America in the early colonial period. 

Calvin, born in France, lived as a student in Paris, but 
was forced to flee, and found safety in Geneva, Switzer- 
land. The greater 
number of Protest- 
ants who followed 
his teachings lived 
in France and were 
called Huguenots. 
We have already seen 
Admiral Coligny try- 
ing to make a settle- 
ment for them in 
Florida. Calvin's 
followers in Germany 
were generally called 
Calvinists ; in Eng- 
land they were called 
Presbyterians. 

Among the leaders 
of the Roman Catho- 
hc Church at the time of the Reformation was Loyola, 
a Spaniard and a soldier. He received a wound which 




r^i^ff5t^^ 



REGINALD POLE 

From an engraving after Ihe painting by Sebastian del 
Piombo, now in the Hermitage, Petrograd 



England the Rival of Spain in Europe and America 293 



turned his mind to religion, and he resolved to be a 
missionary. He became the founder of the order of the 
Society of Jesus, called 
the Jesuits. 

In England, an- 
other Catholic who 
spent his life in de- 
fense of the papacy 
was Reginald Pole. 
He was made cardinal 
by the pope, whom he 
aided against Henry 
Vni, and rose to be 
Archbishop of Canter- 
bury in the reign of 
Queen Mary. 

132. Henry VIII 
Becomes Head of the 
English Church. Hen- 
ry, King of England, in his double quarrel with the King 
of Spain and the pope, brought about the separation of the 
English Church and the Roman. Still there were Roman 
Catholics faithful to the pope and their early teachings. 
Others belonged to the English Church, of which the king 
had been declared the head by the English Parliament. 

Many Englishmen went to join Luther, Calvin, and 
other leaders of the religious revolt. Many more left 
England when Mary, a Roman Catholic, became queen 

(1553). 

The succession of EHzabeth to the throne of England 
was the signal for the return of these Enghshmen. They 
came back, filled with enthusiasm for the new ideas. 
20 




m 



JOHN CALVIN 

From an engraving after the original painting, by an 
nnknoivn artist, in the library at Geneva 



294 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



Many of these people did not agree in their religious 
views either with the Catholics or with the Church of 
England, and they were called Puritans. The discus- 
sions and debates over religious questions divided the 
English Church into Puritans and Episcopalians, as they 
were later called. 

The Puritans, ambitious to change the ways of worship 
still further, separated into two great bodies, the Con- 
gregationalists and the Presbyterians. The Congrega- 
tionalists, driven by persecution, sought homes in New 
England, where twenty-five thousand settled between 
1620 and 1640. Large numbers of Presbyterians came 
into the mountainous regions of Virginia and Pennsyl- 
vania, besides locating in other colonies. Roman Catho- 
lics settled mostly in 
Maryland. Many 
thousands belonging 
to the English Church 
occupied the south- 
ern colonies. 

133. Elizabeth's 
Plans, and the Puri- 
tans. When Eliza- 
beth mounted the 
throne (1558) she had 
one great purpose, — 
to lift England from 
its lowly position to 
the first place among 

from the painting by E. Lafon ^he nationS Of thc 

world. But Englishmen were divided in regard to relig- 
ious views. The Puritans gave Elizabeth a great deal of 




ST. IGNATIUS UF LOYOLA 

From an engraving after a lithograph made by Barry 



England the Rival of Spain in Etirope and America 295 




trouble and made the nations on the continent of Eu- 
rope feel that Englishmen were not loyal to their queen. 

But she won everybody 
to her side, the Puritans 
included, except people of 
extreme views, by appealing 
to all Englishmen to stand 
by her against the enemies 
of England. The people, 
discovering a plot to kill 
Elizabeth, were aroused to 
the highest pitch of indig- 
nation. Englishmen signed 
a mighty oath to put to 
death anybody trying to kill 
the queen. 

Elizabeth was said to be 
haughty to her courtiers but 
tenderly sympathetic to the "common people." She 
was called vain, and had a great fondness for fine clothes 
and jewels. She loved to appear in public surrounded 
by her nobles and ladies, richly dressed. It is even said 
that she loved flattery, but through it all she \^as believed 
to be so devoted to her country and its people that she 
received the title of "Good Queen Bess." 

During EHzabeth's long reign the country prospered 
and the people adopted more modern ways of living. 
The old feudal castle, no longer needed for defense, gave 
way to the EHzabethan palace, decorated with pictures 
and tapestries. Grace and beauty in furniture became 
the rule. Luxuries of an earlier day rapidly became 
necessities. 



After the statue by St. Gaudens 



A PURITAN MINISTER 



296 Tlie Story of Old Europe and Young America 



134. Elizabeth and Mary, Queen of Scots. Elizabeth, 
however, had two powerful enemies — the pope and the 
King of Spain. The pope had refused to call her the 
rightful Queen of England because she had persecuted 
Roman Catholics for religion's sake, and because the 
beautiful and fascinating Mary, Queen of Scots, put 
forth her claim to the queenship of England. Mary 
had appealed to the pope and the .King of Spain for aid 
against Elizabeth. 

Spain had become the most powerful Roman Catholic 
nation in Europe. Her king could call to his aid the 
largest armies and the mightiest navies in the world. 

Unfortunately, Mary had been driven into England 
by a dangerous uprising against her among the Scots. 
Elizabeth threw her into prison, w^here she was kept for 

over eighteen 
years. 

Two such 
masterful wo- 
men could not 
be near each 
other without 
trouble. Mary 
was beautiful 
and winning, 
and had pow- 
erful friend sin 
England and 
on the Conti- 
nent. Eliza- 
beth was a woman of great energy and ability and had 
raised England from a weak to a powerful nation. As 




INTERIOR OF MARY QUEEN OF SCOTTS BEDROOM 
IN HOLYROOD CASTLE 



England the Rival of Spain in Europe and America 297 



Roman Catholics looked to Spain as their leader, so 
Protestants all over Europe looked upon England as 
the champion of their 
cause. 

Plot after plot 
against the life of 
Elizabeth pointed to 
Mary, but Mary 
denied the charges. 
Englishmen in high 
places called for her 
trial. Finally she was 
tried, declared guilty, 
and died like a martyr. 

All Europe shud- 
dered at the news of 
Mary's execution, and 
King Philip of Spain 
summoned his army and navy for the invasion of Eng- 
land to avenge her death. We shall presently see how 
this Great Armada, as it was called, met defeat at the 
hands of Englishmen. 

135. The Revolt of the Netherlands. Another cause 
that hindered Spain in getting a hold in North x\merica 
was the loss of millions in money and thousands of men 
in trying to crush the revolt in the Netherlands, or Low 
Countries. This region differs from other countries in 
many ways. It lies on both banks of the lower part of 
the great German river, the Rhine. Much of the land is 
low; indeed, below the level of the sea. The angry waves 
from the North Sea are kept out by great embankments, 
many feet high, called dikes. All along the seashore, 




From an old engra\ing 
PHILIP II OF SPAIN' 



>98 



The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




ALONG THE DIKES OF 
HOLLAND 



and on each side of rivers, they stretch for miles. It is a 
great pleasure to walk or ride from Amsterdam to the sea. 

The coun- 
try is now 
divided into 
Holland on 
the north and 
Belgium on 
the south. 
The Holland- 
ers, or Dutch 
people, speak 
a language 

akin to the Germans. The Belgians mostly use the 
French language. Hollanders are generally Protestants 
and the Belgians, Roman Catholics. The Hollanders 
of that time (155 0-1650) were fishermen, farmers, and 
dairymen, and were noted as great traders. The Belgians 
were largely engaged in weaving and in manufacturing. 
Both countries sent their goods to all parts of Europe 
and to the rest of the world. They were growing rich, 
for they were better traders than the Spaniards, and were 
winning the trade of India away from the Portuguese. 

In that age countries passed from one king or queen 
to another, much the same as property now passes from 
one person to another. We have already seen that the 
rich region of the Netherlands fell to Charles V of Spain 
and later to his son Philip when he became the king 
of that country. 

King Philip appointed rulers over the Netherlands, 
which the people called oppressive, and backed them up 
with soldiers. The people, rose in riots and destroyed 



England the Rival of Spain in Europe and America 299 



property right and left. Then the king sent the Duke 
of Alva, the man whose very name makes the Hollander 
of to-day shudder as he reads the story of his cruelty to 
the Dutch. With ten thousand soldiers, aided by his 
"Council of Blood," he punished Protestants and Catho- 
Hcs alike when they did not submit to his authority. 
Thousands were burned, hanged, beheaded, or met a 
worse fate. He taxed the people without mercy until 
their business was at a standstill. 

136. William the Silent. We can hardly see how the 
Dutch could have won against Spain had not a great 
and noble man, Wilham the Silent, undertaken to lead 
the armies of Holland. He is called "The Silent" 
because he knew when not to speak. He took charge 
of the Dutch army (1568). The Spanish soldiers at first 
despised Wil- 
liam's soldiers 
and sailors and 
called them 
" Beggars." 
They were 
farmers, labor- 
ers, and sailors, 
but their 
leader was a 
master. Wil- 
liam inspired 
them with his 
own grim reso- 
lution to fight 

Spain until she acknowledged the Netherlands a free land. 
At first Spain could easily beat WilHam's soldiers, 




"^"fer" 










From photograph and original sketches made 
A SCENE IN HOLLAND 



, Holland 



300 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



but, led by William, they were always ready to fight 
again. In this same way Washington won the American 
Revolution. Finally the Dutch captured and fortified 
a leading town. Many other towns came to their aid. 
They elected William their ruler. 

Alva recaptured some of the towns, and put to death 
even the women and children. This was terrible. But 
Alva did not yet know the spirit of the Dutch. Instead 
of stamping out rebellion, his cruelty only caused it to 
spread. The Belgians now came to the help of the 
Hollanders, and there was great fighting indeed. 

Spain was finally driven to make friends with the 

Catholic part of the 
people. William and 
the Hollanders, now 
left to fight alone, 
formed the ' ' Union 
of Utrecht" (1579). 
Out of this union 
came a declaration of 
independence (1581). 
How courageous was 
this little Dutch na- 
tion thus to throw off 
the authority of the 
mighty kingdom of 
Spain! With the 
riches of Mexico and 
Peru pouring into 
her treasury, her 
kings had been the leading men in Europe for over half 
a century. Bold, brave Dutchmen, to defy her power! 




WILLIAM THE SILENT 

From an engraving after the original portrait 
by Adriaen Key 



England the Rival of Spain in Europe and America 301 




From print in Winsor's Narrative 
History of Unittd States 



THE OLD CITY OF LEIDEN 



In Spite of Dutch courage- the Spaniards poured 
thousands of soldiers into the country and finally captured 
most of its towns. 
But the city of Leiden 
was hardest of all to 
take. It was located 
not many miles from 
the sea, where great 
dikes threw their 
arms around it to 
keep back the ocean 
waves. Its great 
walls frowned down 
upon the Spaniards. Only a few soldiers were in the 
town to defend it, but the citizens boldly came forward 
to fight. The Spaniards could not take it by storm, so 
they waited until that grim monster, starvation, should 
force the Dutch to surrender. For six weeks bread could 
not be had, and people died by the hundreds, but still no 
surrender. 

William decided upon a desperate remedy. He 
opened the dikes! In rushed the mighty ocean waves, 
hungry for the lives of human beings, for the dikes had 
held them back so long! Hundreds of Spanish soldiers 
were drowned. William's fleet, with two hundred vessels 
laden with food and fresh troops, was ready for action. 
The Spanish were defeated. To honor the courage of 
the brave people of Leiden the government of Holland 
built in Leiden a great university where, in the next 
century, many Englishmen studied. Some of these men 
aided in laying the foundations of New England. 

The King of Spain resolved to put an end to the war 



302 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



by the murder of William the Silent. The king offered 
a reward for this deed, an,d William fell in 1584, a victim 

of Spanish hate. The 
Dutch have never 
forgotten the heroic 
deeds of William the 
Silent. 

Long before Wil- 
liam's death the noble 
struggle of the Dutch 
stirred the people of 
England. London 
merchants had 
already sent half a 
million in money to 
aid them. Dutch 
war vessels found 
protection in English 
ports, and English 
ships ran up the 
Dutch flag in making 
attacks on Spanish 
ships. But it was not until late in the war that Elizabeth 
sent soldiers to fight for Dutch freedom — five thousand 
in all. Many noble Englishmen went to the aid of the 
Netherlands, but of them all none was more famous than 
the poet. Sir Philip Sidney. As he lay dying after a 
battle, a drink of water was offered to quench his thirst. 
He turned with a smile to a wounded comrade near by, 
and said, "Take it. Thy necessity is greater than mine." 
One cause for the fitting out of the Great Armada later 
by Spain was the help Elizabeth gave the Dutch. 




SIR PHILIP SIDNEY 



From an engraving after a portrait by Sir Antonis 

van Moor, now in the collection of the 

Duke of Bedford 



England the Rival of Spain in Europe and America 303 

137. Close of the Thirty Years' War. But it was not 

until 1609 that Spain made peace with the Dutch; and 
not until the Treaty of Westphalia, which the nations 
made at the close of the Thirty Years' War, that Spain 
recognized the independence of Holland (1648). 

In the same year that Spain made peace with Holland 
(1609) a Dutch vessel, the famous Half-Moon, with 
Henry Hudson as captain sailed up the river now- known 
as the Hudson. Therefore the year 1609 marked the 
peace between Holland and Spain and the beginning of 
the Dutch colony of New Netherland which later became 
New York. 

Thus it was that the King of Spain for nearly one 
hundred years found himself fighting first one nation 
and then another — France, England, or Holland. Al- 
though Spain was made wealthy by gold and silver from 
Mexico and Peru, the wars which she kept up were a 
constant drain upon her, using up the lives of her sons 
and exhausting the supply of gold that flowed in from 
the New World. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. John Cabot, trying to find a short 
route to India, discovered what is supposed to be Labrador, or 
Cape Breton. 2. On a second voyage he coasted along east- 
em North America, as far south as the Carolinas. j. Later, 
England claimed all North America. 4. Henry VIII quarreled 
with the King of Spain and the Pope of Rome. 5. The Refor- 
mation led to division of people on the basis of difference in re- 
ligion. 6. Catholic and Protestant leaders. 7. The rise of 
the Puritans. 8. Elizabeth won support by appealing to the 
patriotism of all classes. 9. EngHshmen took an oath. 10. 
Mary, Queen of Scots, her rival. 11. Elizabeth had Mary put 
to death because she believed her the center of plots to obtain 
the English throne. 12. The Great Armada, fitted out to punish 



304 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

Elizabeth, brought gradual decay of Spain. 13. The nations 
that checked the growth of Spain northward in North America. 
14. The difference between Holland and other nations. 15. 
The origin of the conflict in the Netherlands. 16. William the 
Silent and the "Beggars of the Sea." 77. William and Wash- 
ington compared. 18. Catholics of Netherlands driven to side 
with William, ig. The Union of Utrecht. 20. The siege of 
Leiden. 21. The assassination of William. 22. Elizabeth 
sent soldiers to aid the Dutch. 2j. Spain recognized the 
independence of Holland, and the Dutch planted the colony of 
New Netherland. 

Study Questions, i. Tell the story of John Cabot before 
he came to England. 2. What did Cabot want to find, and 
what did he find? j. Why was little attention given to the 
new lands? 4. Why did Henry VUI think little of America? 
5. Who were the great leaders, and what great changes took 
place during the Reformation? 6. Where did each sect settle 
in America? 7. What difficult problem did Elizabeth face, and 
how did she win the majority of her people ? 8. Who was Mary, 
Queen of Scots? g. What were the causes of her death? 10. 
How did the pope and the Kling of Spain take revenge? 11. 
How is the Netherlands protected from the sea? 12. How does 
Holland differ from Belgium? ij. How did vSpain come to 
rule the Netherlands, and what made the Netherlands revolt? 
14. How could the Netherlands hold out against Spain? 15. 
Why did the Catholics join the Protestants? 16. Who made 
the Union of Utrecht? 17. What does the siege of Leiden 
prove? 18. What desperate means did Spain finally use to 
get rid of William the Silent? ig. As soon as the Netherlands 
won their independence, what did they do of interest to the 
people of the United States? 20. Show how Spain, in spite of 
the riches of Mexico and Peru, used all her wealth in her wars. 

Suggested Readings. Cabot: Hart, Colonial Children, 7-8; 
Griffis, Romance of Discovery, 105-111 ; Elizabeth: Guerber, The 
Story of the English, 233-243 ; Church, Stories of English History, 
370-394; Abbott, History of Queen Elizabeth, 120-220; Tappan, 
In the Days of Queen Elizabeth, 95-262; Brooks, Historic Girls, 
174-191; William the Silent: Upton, William of Orange; 
Dawson, Stories from Dutch History, 104-218; Ma'cGregor, Ro- 
mance of History: Netherlands, 242-273; Griffis, Brave Little 
Holland and What She Has Taught Us, 139-200. 



How the English Sea Dogs Fought the Spanish Sailors 305 



HOW THE ENGLISH SEA DOGS FOUGHT 

THE SPANISH SAILORS AND ROBBED 

THE SPANISH TREASURE SHIPS 

138. The Beginnings of Trouble. When the EngHsh 
soldiers and sailors came back from fighting in Holland, 
they told their queen and people horrible tales of Spanish 
cruelty. Likewise, the sailors from the New World told 
how the Spanish had captured English sailors and had 
burned them at the stake. 

These stories set the British seamen on fire for revenge. 
King Philip of Spain sent threats of what he would do, 
but no attention was given them while English sailors 
felt that their fellows were 
flung into Spanish dungeons 
"laden with irons, without 
sight of sun or moon." 

139. Sir Francis Drake. 
The most famous of the sea 
captains who came to the help 
of England against Spain was 
Sir Francis Drake. He had 
served many years under a 
kinsman, a daring sailor. Sir 
John Hawkins, a slave trader 
and a member of Parliament. 
Drake was serving under Haw- 
kins, when he lost all, except 
his^ honor and his courage, in 
a sea fight. 

The queen gave Sir Francis Drake command of a ves- 
sel, and in company with two other ships he captured a 




SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 

From the original portrait attributed to 
Sir Antonis van Moor, in the pos- 
session of Viscount Dillon, at 
Dilchly Park, England 



3o6 The Story oj Old Europe and Young America 



Spanish town on the Isthmus of Panama, and from the 
top of a tree beheld the blue waters of the Pacific. He 

resolved to sail its 
waters some day. 

So pleased was 
Queen Elizabeth with 
the way in which 
Drake made use of 
the Spanish wealth he 
had obtained, that she 
gave him the money 
for his new expedi- 
tion against the Span- 
iards. There was 
great excitement in 
England when it be- 
came known that 
Drake was to go in 
search of Spanish 
treasure ships in the 
Pacific. 

140. The First Englishman to Circumnavigate the 
Globe. With four ships Drake made direct for the 
Strait of Magellan. He lost two of the ships, and one 
returned home, but Drake kept on in the Pelican. On 
the western coast of South America he spied the treasure 
ships, gave chase, and soon overtook them with his smaller 
and fleeter boat. He loaded her to his heart's content with 
the gold, silver, and precious stones which the Spaniards 
had gathered from the mines of Peru. 

Drake was wise. He sailed north to the coast of 
what is now California, spent the winter there repairing 




SIR JOHN HAWKINS 

From a print after an old engraving 



How the English Sea Dogs Fought the Spanish Sailors 307 



his vessel, resting, and searching for a northwest passage 
to the Atlantic. He knew the Spaniards were waiting 
his return, so he turned the prow of the Pelican to the 
westward, sailed through the Indian Ocean, and reached 
home in a little less than three years (1580). 

Drake had circumnavigated the world ^ — the first 
Englishman to do it^ — and had brought great wealth 
home to England. Queen Elizabeth went on board 
his ship, with lords and ladies, conferred knighthood 
upon Drake, and renamed his ship The Golden Hind. 



When the 
story of the 
doings of 
Drake was 
told King 
Philip he was 
angry indeed, 
and resolved 
to strike a 
counter blow 
that England 
would have 
good cause 
to remember; 
not only a 
blow for 
Drake's acts, 
but in revenge 
for the execu- 
tion of Mary, 




QUEEN ELIZABETH KNIGHTING SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 



Queen of Scots, which had just taken place in the Tower. 
141. "Singeing the Spanish King's Beard." The 



3oS The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

King of Spain had b.een working hard for three years. 
All Spain was busy with preparations. Something must 
be done, and that quickly. Elizabeth sent Drake with 
thirty small vessels to make an attack. He reached 
Cadiz, sailed right into the harbor, burned store ships and 
ships for carrying troops, and escaped without harm. 
It took the King of Spain another year to get ready ! 

142. The Coming of the Great Armada (1588). If 
Philip was angry before, he w^as furious now. He made 
greater preparation than ever. But the people of England 
were ready, too. The national enthusiasm was. raised to 
the highest pitch, and Catholics as well as Protestants 
joined the army and navy to defend "Good Queen Bess." 

When the news came that the Spanish fleet had 
entered the English Channel, signal fires burned from 
every hilltop along the coast. The story is told that 
Lord Howard, Sir Francis Drake, and other English sea 
captains were busy on shore with a game of "bowls" 




SHIPS OF THE SPANISH ARMADA 

From the original tapestry in the House of Parliament, London, burned in 1834 

when the alarming news reached them. Howard was in 
favor of putting to sea at once. But Drake replied: 



How the English Sea Dogs Fought the Spanish Sailors 309 

"There's plenty of time to win this game, and thrash 
the Spaniards, too." 

The EngHsh ships were fewer in number than the 
Spanish, but were better built, faster sailers, and manned by 
more skillful sailors and experienced captains. The Eng- 
lishrnen, too, were better marksmen than the Spaniards. 

143. A Great Sea Fight. There were thousands of 
soldiers on board the Spanish ships, with which to invade 
England. Up the Channel the mighty fleet came, past 
the English town of Plymouth, where the game of bowls 
was being played. Now the EngHsh sailors "cleared the 
decks" of their swifter warships, dashed in, and pounced 
upon one Spanish vessel at a time. In this wise they 
chased the Armada into the French port of Calais. 

The Spaniards were hoping to carry still other soldiers 
from the Netherlands, where they had been fighting the 
Dutch, to the invasion of England, but they soon had 
other things to think of, for the English sent "fire ships" 
drifting among the vessels of the Armada. 

When the Spaniards saw certain destruction floating 
down upon them they lifted their anchors and sailed out 
to sea again, where the EngHsh could get at them. Hard 
fighting followed, and the Armada sought to escape by 
saiHng around to the north of Scotland and Ireland, but 
terrible storms overtook them. Scores were dashed to 
pieces and thousands of sailors and soldiers lost their 
lives. In a walk of five miles along the Irish coast an 
EngHshman reported that he had counted more than a 
thousand dead Spaniards. 

144. A Crushing Defeat. After the defeat of the 
Great Armada aH Spain was in mourning, for almost every 
noble family lost a son. King PhiHp tried to excuse his 
21 



3IO The Story of Old Europe and Young America 




great sea captain who commanded the fleet, by saying, "I 
sent you to fight against men, and not with the winds." 

In the minds 
of the Eng- 
lish, Drake, 
Howard, and 
the other ship 
commanders 
were great 
heroes. The 
powerof Spain 
was broken. 
Gradually, on 
land and sea, 
her forces 
grew feebler, 
until she gave 

up her position as leader in Europe. In the Spanish- 
American War Spain lost her last great possessions in the 
West and East Indies to the United States. 

145. How Sir Walter Raleigh Won the Queen's 
Favor. One of the bravest men who fought for the glory 
of England against the Spanish Armada was Sir Walter 
Raleigh. He had joined the English forces sent to help 
William the Silent, and had seen service in Ireland. At 
thirty years of age he was striking in his looks, tall, 
straight, and handsome. He was a polished man, full 
of wit and humor. 

One day Raleigh stood aside with the crowd w^hich 
always gathered to see the queen and her fine lords and 
ladies go by. The queen hesitated at a muddy place. 
In a moment Raleigh had thrown his red plush coat down 



SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND QUEEN ELIZABETH 

This incident, through which Sir Walter Raleigh found favor with 

the queen, is said to have taken place at Greenwich as 

the queen was on her way to the boat landing 



How the English Sea Dogs Fought the Spanish Sailors 311 



for the queen and her ladies to step upon. Raleigh's 
reward was a nod and a smile from her gracious Majesty. 
From now on he was a great favorite at court. 

146. Raleigh Tries to Plant Colonies in America. 
Raleigh found the planting of colonies a better way of 
opposing the power of Spain in America than robbing 
treasure ships or burning her cities. He had accom- 
panied his 
half-brother, 
Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert, on 
two voyages 
to America. 
Gilbert was 
the first Eng- 
lishman to 
attempt to 
plant a colony 
in the New 
World. His 
efforts had 
failed because 
the people 
who went 
with him were 
mainly adven- 
turers who 



had no desire 
to settle down 




THE INDIAN TOWN OF POMEIOOC, VIRGINIA 

From an engraving by De Bry after a drawing made by Governor 
John White, sent out to Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh in 2585 

to the hard 

task of developing a new country. They wanted gold 

mines which would quickly transform them into rich 



312 The Story oj Old Europe and Young America 

men, so that they might return to England and live the 
lives of gentlemen. Gilbert himself was a noble man and 
had great faith in the future colonization of America. 
Compelled to abandon his plans, he sailed for home, but 
his boat was wrecked in a heavy storm and all on board 
perished. Raleigh, who strongly believed in the coloniza- 
tion plan, now obtained permission from the queen, and 
immediately sent Amidas and Barlow to the New World. 
They brought back such charming stories of land, climate, 
and Indians that Elizabeth gave the region from Maine to 
Mexico the name Virginia in honor of her own virgin life. 

Raleigh immediately sent out a fleet under Ralph 
Lane as governor (1584), but instead of working to raise 
a supply of food, they spent the time searching for gold 
and silver. Sir Francis Drake,' returning from the West 
Indies, brought the colonists back to England. But this 
colony did some good in the world : it carried to England 
the tobacco plant — which afterwards became the basis of 
Virginia's prosperity — and the white potato, which has 
been worth more to the world than all the gold found 
by Cortes and Pizarro. 

A second colony of one hundred and fifty men and 
women was sent. John White, the governor, had to 
return to England for supplies. But at that time all 
England was rising to meet the Armada. Men were 
needed at home, and it was almost three years before 
he sailed back, to find the colony gone, no one knew 
where. Raleigh searched in vain for his lost colony. 

Raleigh's purse was not equal to his courage. His 
money was soon gone. No one man had enough to found 
a settlement, and finally when Virginia was settled it 
was done by a great chartered "company. But Raleigh 



How the English Sea Dogs Fought the Spanish Sailors 313 

declared that he would live to see the day when Virginia 
would be a nation. He did live to see the day when a 
vessel, carrying the products of Virginia, had sailed into 
an EngHsh port, and an Indian princess, Pocahontas, 
had married an Englishman and had been received by 
the king and queen of England. 

147. The Meaning of the Battle with Spain. For 
nearly one hundred years France, Holland, and England 
had been battling with the Spaniard. Sometimes it was 
a trial at arms on the battlefields of Europe, at other 
times a conflict between sailors for the control of the 
seas. But every war that was fought meant the gradual 
but growing weakness of Spain. By the time Jamestown 
(1607) and Plymouth (1620) were settled, English sailors 
felt that in courage and skill they were more than a match 
for the sailors of Spain. 

After Virginia had been settled over half a century, 
some English noblemen settled the Carolinas. Spain 
looked upon this movement as threatening her colonies 
in Florida, and retaliated by attacking the Carolinas. 
In the course of time Englishmen demanded that the 
colony of Georgia be planted as an outpost against the 
Spaniards. A great man in England combined a plan 
of settling Georgia with men imprisoned for debt, with 
the scheme of making the colony a bulwark against Spain. 
Fredericka, a place in southern Georgia, was soon forti- 
fied and bravely withstood all attacks of the Spaniards. 

148. France and England Fight for Control. We saw 
the Dutch plant the colony of New Netherland. A 
number of Dutch governors ruled it, but in 1664 it came, by 
conquest, into the hands of the English. Thus England 
had a continuous line of colonies from Maine to Georgia. 



314 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 

The French were pushing their claims to the St. 
Lawrence region. The fur trader and the missionary- 
were steadily making their way westward to the Missis- 
sippi. A little later the French began to move from the 
Gulf of Mexico up the Mississippi. By 1750 France had 
a complete chain of forts from gulf to gulf, joining the 
St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi. 

England took alarm. The wars of King William, 
Queen Anne, and King George were only skirmishes 
compared to the great French and Indian War (1752- 
1763). But France was beaten and England ruled North 
America east of the Mississippi River. 

It does not require a big stretch of the imagination 
to see the Spanish- American War (1898) as the dying 
effort of Spain to retain control of her colonies in the 
West Indies and in the Philippines. Once Europe bowed 
to her might in war, and in America she seemed in a fair 
way to swallow up the best parts of the New World, but 
in our day she ranks among the smaller nations of the 
world. Thousands of her best men, millions upon millions 
of money, and millions of square miles of the richest land 
the sun ever shone upon, Spain wasted in war. War 
has its lessons, but Spain was too slow to learn. 

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL 

The Leading Facts, i. Drake hated the Spaniards. 2. He 
sailed to the Pacific in the Pelican and then turned northward 
after the Spanish gold ships, j. He wintered in California, 
and then started across the Pacific, the first Englishman to 
sail around the world. 4. Drake reached England, and was 
received with great joy. 5. Once more Drake went to fight 
Spaniards, until the Great Armada attacked England. 6. The 
size and purpose of the Armada. 7. Prove that Drake was 
not alarmed. 8. How the English beat the Armada, q. A 



How the English Sea Dogs Fought the Spanish Sailors 315 

battle between the Teuton and Latin. 10. Walter Raleigh, a 
soldier, won the favor of the queen. //. He hated the Spaniards, 
and planted settlements in what is now North Carolina. 12. 
Raleigh's prophecy. 13. Final result of Raleigh's efforts to 
settle America. 14. The struggle with France. 

Study Questions, i. What reason had the Spaniards for 
thinking Drake a dragon ? 2. Tell the story of Drake 's circum- 
navigation. J. How did Queen EHzabeth reward him? 4. 
Why did Drake sail into the port of Cadiz and "singe the king 's 
beard"? 5. Where is Cadiz? 6. Explain the double purpose 
of the Armada. 7. How did the Spaniards expect to get sol- 
diers in the Netherlands? 8. How did the English beat the 
Spaniards? g. How did the defeat of the Armada injure Spain 
and help England, France, and the Netherlands? 10. What 
experiences did Raleigh have before he was thirty years old? 
II. Make a picture of the cloak episode. 12. How did Raleigh 
plan to check the power of Spain? ij. What did the colonists 
take home with them? 14. What was the reason for the 
failure of Raleigh's last settlement in America? ij. Tell 
about the final struggle between France and England. 

Suggested Readings. Drake: Hart, Source Book of Ameri- 
can History, 9-1 1; Hale, Stories of Discovery, 86-106; Frothing- 
ham, Sea Fighters from Drake to Farragut. The Armada: 
Warren, Stories from English History, 234-241; Bacon, The 
Boy's Drake, 3-470; Church, Stories from English History, 244- 
260. Raleigh: Hart and Hazard, Colonial Children, 166-170; 
Wright, Children's Stories in American History, 254-258; Hig- 
ginson. Young Folks' Book of American Explorers, 177-200; 
Bolton, Famous Voyagers, 154-234; Blaisdell, Stories from, 
English History , 1 1 2 - 1 2 4 . 



THE INDEX 

{The references are to pages in the text of the hook) 



ACHILLES, 3i, 34- 

Acre, siege at, 236. 

Acropolis, 58, 60. 

Adrianople, 133. 

Adriatic Sea, 76, 241. 

Africa, s, 7, 14, 224, 252; cities of ancient, 

85; Greeks in, 27. 
Agamemnon, 33, 34. 
Agriculture, see Farming. 
Ajax, ii. 
Alaric, 140. 
Alcuin, 155. 
Alemanni, 147. 
Alesia, 97. 

Alexander the Great, 65-69; carries Greek 
ideas into Asia, 67-69; death of, 69; end 
of empire of, 69; portrait, 66; youth, 
65-67. 
Alexandria, 28, 69, 70; geographers of, 
72-73; Pharos or lighthouse, 70; scholars 
of, 72-73- 
Alexandrine Library, 70. 
Alfred the Great, 162-167; and the Danes, 
162-166; childhood of, 163-164; estab- 
lishes schools, 166; rule of, 166-167; 
statue of, 167. 
Algonquins, Champlain and the, 288. 
Alhambra, palace of the, 225, 240. 
Alphabets, 248; Greek, Phoenician, Roman, 

23- 
Alps, 76, 211: Hannibal crosses the, 86-87. 
Alva, Duke of, 299, 300. 
Amiens, cathedral of, 216. 
America, origin of name, 265-266. 
America (North), 9, 10; Columbus dis- 
covers, 257-261; Columbus' later voy- 
ages to, 262; England and Spain rivals in, 
290-303; France and England fight for 
control in, 313-314; France and Spain 
fight for control in, 282-289; honors 
Columbus in Columbian Exposition, 
262; Leif Ericson discovers, 263; Raleigh 
tries to plant colonies in, 311-312. 
America (South), 9. 
"Amerige," 266. 
Amidas, 312. 
Amphitheaters, iii. 
Amsterdam, 243. 
Andes Mountains, Pizarro and his men 

reach, 272. 
Angle-Land, 136, 144. 
Angles, 136. See also Anglo-Saxons. 
Anglo-Saxons, 141-144, 162, 168; in Bri- 
tain, 143-144- 
Antioch, Crusades at, 230. 
Antipodes, 7. 
Antony, Mark, loi. 



Antwerp, 243. 

Apalachee Bay, De Soto on, 274. 

Apennines, 76. 

Apollo, 30. 

Appian Way, 5. 

Apprentice, 206. 

Aqueducts, 4, 103. 

Arabia, 224. 

Arabic figures, 225, 240. 

Arabs, 224-225; adopt learning of Greeks 
and Romans, 224; buildings of, 225; give 
people of Europe first ideas of chemistry, 
mathematics, and other scientific sub- 
jects, 225; tolerant of Christian religion, 
225. 

Archbishop, 219. 

Arches, Roman, 106; triumphal, no. 

Ariovistus, 95. 

Aristotle, 66. 

Arithmetic, Arabs excel in, 225. 

Armada, Spanish, 297, 302, 308-309, 312. 

Arno River, 76. 

Arthur, King, 143. 

Asia, 5, 8, 14, 20-23, 224; Alexander the 
Great carries Greek ideas into, 67-69; 
conquered by the Romans, 89. 

Asia Minor, 46, 232; Crusades in, 228; 
Greeks in, 27. 

Athena, 30. 

Athenians, 39-44; as merchants, 42; as 
philosophers, 42; education of the young, 
40-41; public speaking among the, 39. 

Athens, 28, 37, 47, 51. S3. 63, 64, 65, 70; 
buildings and statues, 57-61; comparison 
of Sparta and, 39; influence upon the 
world of, 56-62; "long walls," 61. 

Attila, 133. 

Augsburg, 211. 

Augustine, missionary in England, 148. 

Augustus, Caesar, 101-102; statue of, loi. 

Axes, battle, 248. 

Aztecs, 269-270; Cortes conquers, 271. 

BABYLON, 20, 46. 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 266-267; dis- 
covers the Pacific, 266. 
Barlow, 312. 

Bartholomew, brother of Columbus, 255. 
"Basilicas," 107. 
Baths, Roman, 108. 
Battering ram, 236. 
Bayard, Chevalier, 283-284. 
"Beggars," 299. 

Belgium, 211, 298; aids Holland, 300. 
Benedict, see St. Benedict. 
Bertha, 148. 
Bible, early printing of the, 249. 



xiv The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



Bishop of the Middle Ages, 218-219. 

Black Sea, 242. 

Blondel, 238-239. 

Boniface, see St. Boniface. 

Books, early, 248-249; of the Romans, 

120-122. 
Bosporus, 132. 
Boston, 286. 
Bourbon, Duke of, and Chevalier Bayard, 

284. 
Bremen, 210. 
Brenner Pass, 211. 
Bristol, 213, 290. 
Britain conquered by Angles and Saxons, 

141-144. 
British Isles, 2. 
Britons, 97-98. 
Brittania, 7; Caesar in, 97-98. 
Bruges, 211. 
Brutus, loi. 
Buffalo, Coronado's army finds herds ot, 

277. 
Buildings, of the Arabs, 225; of Athens, 

57-61; Elizabethan, 295; of the Mexican 

Indians, 270; of Rome, 105-108; of 

Venice, 242. 
Byzantium, 132. 

CABOT, John, finds North America, 

200-291. 
Cadiz, 243. 

Caesar Augustus, see .Auguslus Caesar. 
Caesar, Julius, 94-101 ; bust of, 95; conquers 

Gaul, 95-98; conquers Rome, 99; in 

Brittania, 97-98; death of, 99-101. 
Calais, 309. 

Calvin, John, 285, 292, 293; portrait, 293. 
Calvinists, 292. 
Canada, Cartier in, 285; Champlain in, 

288. 
Canary Islands, 257. 
Cannae, battle of, 87. 
Cannon, invention of, 250. 
Canterbury Cathedral, 17s, 221. 
Canterbury Pilgrims, 223. 
Capitoline Hill, 165. 
Carcassonne, France, 203. 
Carolinas, 313. 
Carthage, 85; wars between Rome and, 

86-89. 
Cartier, Jacques, 284-285; portrait, 284. 
Castles of the Middle Ages, 186-187. 
Catacombs, 126. 
Cathay (China), 245. 
Cathedrals of Europe, 215-217. 
Catholic Church, English Church separated 

from the, 293. 
Catholics (Roman), 297, 298, 308; Bel- 
gians are, 298; in. America, 294; Spain 

a nation of, 296, 297. 
Chalons, 134. 
Champlain, Samuel de, founds New France, 

288-2S9. 
Charlemagne, see Charles the Great. 
Charles V of Spain, 282, 298; quarrel 

between Henry VIII and, 291. 
Charles the Great (Charlemagne), 154-158; 

and Christianity, 156-157; crowned 

Emperor of Rome, 157. 



Charles Martel, 155. 

Charleston, 286. 

Charter, The Great, see Magna Car\a. 

Chemistry, first ideas of from the Arabs, 
225. 

Children's Crusade, 239-240. 

China, 8; or Cathay, 245; the Polos' visit 
to, 244-246. 

Chivalry and knighthood of the Middle 
Ages, 194-196. 

Christ, Jesus, 124, 227. 

Christianity, 124-130, 224; Charles the 
Great an advocate of, 156-157; Germans 
and, 145-154; persecution of followers of, 
125-126; tolerated by Arabs, 225; 
triumph of, 126-130. 

Christians, 230. See also Crusaders. 

Christians, and Turks battle for the Holy 
Land, 226; persecuted by Turks, 225. 

Church of the Middle Ages, 215-220; 
buildings, 215-217, 242; clergy and pope, 
218-220. 

Cibolo, Seven Cities of, 275-277. 

Cicero, 123. 

Cincinnatus, 79. 

"Circuses," no. 

Cities, founded by the Greeks, 28; of 
ancient Africa, 85. 

Claudius Appius, 8 1 . 

Clergy of the Middle Ages, 185, 218-220. 

Clermont, Council at, 226-227. 

Clovis, 146-147, 154. 

Cluny, monastery of, 152. 

Coligny, Admiral, 286, 292. 

Coliseum, in. 

Colleges, see Schools. 

Cologne Cathedral, 217. 

Colonies of England, 313. 

Colonists, in America, first European, 9; 
Dutch, 303; English, 3H-312, 313. 

Columbian Exposition, 262. 

Columbus, Bartholomew, 255. 

Columbus, Christopher, 9, 247, 254-262, 
265; America discovered by, 254, 257- 
261; Bahamas reached by, 259; Cuba 
reached by, 261; and son, Diego, at 
Palos, 256; first voyage of discovery of, 
257-262; Genoa, birthplace of, 254; 
Indians and, 260; later voyages to 
America of , 262; Pinzon and, 256; Queen 
Isabella and, 256; returns to Spain, 
261-262; sent back to Spain in chains, 
262; sets sail from Spain, 257; seeks aid 
from Genoa and King of Portugal, 255; 
seeks aid from Spain, 255. 

Commerce, Dutch and, 243; effect of Cru- 
sades upon, 243; English and, 243; in the 
Middle Ages, 208-213; leagues for pro- 
tection of, 210; ocean, 243; routes of, 2n; 

Commons, House of, established in Eng- 
land, 182. 

Compass, early. 250; invention of the, 249; 
Marco Polo brings knowledge of, 249. 

Congregationalists, 294. 

Constantine, 128, 132. 

Constantinople, 28, 132, 225, 229, 239, 242; 
Crusades in, 228. 

"Consuls," Roman, 78. 

Coriolanus, 79, 80. 



The Index 



XV 



Coronado, and expedition to find Seven 
Cities of Cibolo, 275-277; discovers 
Grand Canon, 276; finds herds of buflalo, 

Cortes, Hernando, 269-271; and the In- 
dians, 269; conquers the Aztecs, 271; 
death of, 271 ; discovers wonderful Indian 
city (Mexico), 270; in Mexico, 260-271; 
and Montezuma, 270-271; portrait, 269. 

"Council of Blood," 298. 

Crassus, 94, 95, 98. 

Crete, 27. 

Cross, symbol of Crusades, 226. 

Crossbow, 248. 

Crusades, 221-243; beginning of, 226; at 
Antioch, 230; Children's, 239-240; at 
Constantinople, 228; First, 226-234; 
Second and Third, 234; first trained 
army, 229-230; Holy Lance of the, 230; 
Hungarians and, 228; at Jerusalem, 232; 
later, 239; result of, 240-243. 

Cuba, Columbus discovers, 261. 

Cuneiform writing, 22. 

Cuzco, Pizarro reaches, 273. 

DA GAMA, Vasco, 254. 

Danes, 263; in England, 163-166. 

Danube, 131, 132, US- 
Darius, King, 46, 50, 68. 

De Soto, Hernando, 272, 273-275; death of, 
274; discovers the Mississippi, 274; 
expedition of, 273-275; portrait, 273; 
sent to Inca, 272. 

Diana, 30. 

Dias, Bartholomeu, 254. 

"Dictator," 78. 

Diego, son of Columbus, 256. 

Dikes, of the Netherlands, 297; used in 
siege of Leiden, 301. 

Doge, the, 241. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 305-310; circumnavi- 
gates the globe, 306-307; Queen Eliza- 
beth and, 306, 307; plunders ships of 
Spain, 306; portrait, 305; "singes the 
Spanish King's beard," 307-308. 

Druids, 97. 

Dutch, and ocean commerce, 243; New 
Netherland, colony of the, 303. See 
also Netherlands, The. 

EDUCATION, encouraged by Alfred the 
Great, 166; among the Arabs, 225; of the 
young Athenian, 40-41; of Rornan 
children, 118-119; in the monasteries, 
153- 

Edward I, King, 183. 

Egbert, first king of England, 163. 

Egypt, 14-20, 46; influence of Crusades on 
trade of , 241; kings, 17; pyramids, 15, 19; 
religion, 18. 

Egyptian builders, 19. 

Elizabeth, Queen, 293, 294-297; aids the 
Netherlands, 302; and Drake, 306, 307; 
and Raleigh, 310; character of, 295; Mary 
Queen of Scots and, 296-297; Puritans 
and, 295; Virginia named by, 312. 

Elizabethan palace, 295. 

England, 7, 10, 162-183; aids Dutch, 302; 
and France fight for control in America, 



313-314; Angle-Land, 136, 144; Augus- 
tine, the missionary in, 148; Church of, 
see English Church; claims North 
America on discovery by Cabot, 291; 
colonies of, 313; Danes in, 163-166; 
effect of Norman conquest upon, 170- 
171; fights Spain on sea, 305-310; gains 
control of North America east of Missis- 
sippi, 314; gains control of New Nether- 
land, 313; leader of Protestants, 297; 
ocean commerce and, 243; parliament of, 
180-183; rival of Spain in Europe and 
America, 290-303. 

English Church, followers of in America, 
294; separated from Roman Catholic 
Church, 293. 

English language, origin of, 1 70-1 71. 

Episcopalians, 294. 

Ericson, Leif, discovers America, 263. 

Eric the Red, 263. 

Ethelbert, 148. 

Euclid, 72. 

Euphrates River, 20. 

Europe, 7; England and Spain rivals in, 
290-303; France and Spain struggle for 
parts of, 282-289; primitive men of, 
13-14; to-day, 2; war in, 5. 

"Excommunication," 218. 

Explorers of the New World, Spanish, 
265-277. 

FARMING in the Middle Ages, 199-200. 

Feudalism, 190-194; effect of discovery of 
cannon on, 250. 

Five Nations, 288. 

Florence, 212. 

Florida, 313. 

"Folk-moot," 136. 

Fort Caroline, 286. 

Forum, 80, 105, 106. 

France, 3, 136, 140; and England fight for 
control in America, 313-314; Cartier's 
voyage gave North American claims to, 
284; Greeks in, 27; has firm hold in 
America, 289; possessions of, in Arnerica, 
314; and Spain struggle for possessions in 
Europe and America, 282-289; Vikings 
in, 160. 

France, Champlain founds New, 288-289. 

Francis I of France, 282. 

Franks, 136, 140, 154. 

Fredericka, 313. 

Frederick Barbarossa, 235, 242. 

French, see France. 

French and Indian Wars, 314. 

Fur trade, Champlain encourages, 288, 289. 

Fur trader in North America, 314. 

GAMA, see Da Gama. 

Gaul, 7; conquered by Caesar, 95-98. 

Gauls, 82. 

Geese of Rome, sacred, 83. 

Genoa, 212, 239, 241, 242-243; birthplace 
of Columbus, 254; refuses to aid Colum- 
bus, 255; sea fight between Venice and, 
242; and Venice enemies, 246. 

Geography, early ideas of, 6-9. 

Georgia, 313. 



xvi The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



Germans, 135-162; and Christianity, 145- 
154; character of the ancient, 136; hero 
stories, 138-139; ideas of government of 
the ancient, 136-137; influence of Rome 
upon the, 145-161; names of the tribes, 
136; religion, 138-139; villages, 137; 
wars between Romans and, 131-135. 

German tribes, conquest of the, 139-144. 

Germany, 3, 4, 7; discovery of printing 
in, 248. 

Ghent, 211. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 311. 

Gladiators, 111-112. 

Gods, Egyptian, 18; German, 138-139; 
Greek, 29-30; early Roman, 76. 

"Gold coast," 253. 

"Golden fleece," 32. 

Golden Hind, the, 309. 

Gondolas, 242. 

Good Hope, Cape of, 254. 

Goths, 133, 140. 

Gracchi, The, 92-93. 

Grand Caiion, Coronado discovers, 276. 

Greece, 4-5, 7, 26; ancient, 26-28; attacked 
by the Persians, 46-55; cities of, 37; 
colonies of, 27-28; conquered by the 
Romans, 89; decline of, 63-73; govern- 
ment of, 37-39; influence of, upon world, 
70; oracles, 44; Philip gains control of, 65; 
philosophers of, 42, 61. See also Athens. 

Greeks, 24-73 ; alphabet of ,23 ; and athletics, 
45; Arabs adopt learning of the, 224; 
heroes of the, 31-36; myths of the, 24-36; 
religion of the, 29-31. 

Greenland, 263; Vikings in, 161. 

Gregory the Great, 147. 

Gregory VH, 220. 

Guidebooks, beginning of the modern, 222. 

Guilds of the Middle Ages, 205-208; 
training to become a member of, 206-207. 

Guinea, Gulf of, 252. 

Gunpowder, discovery of, 250. 

Gutenberg, inventor of the printing press, 
249. 

"HADES," 29. 

Half-Moon, 303. 

Hamburg, 210. 

Hannibal, 85-89 ;army of, 86-87; portrait, 86 

Hanseatic League, 210. 

Harold, 168. 

Hastings, battle of, 168. 

Hawkins, Sir John, 305; portrait, 306. 

Hebrews, 22-23; religion, 22. 

Hector, 33, 34. 

Helen of Troy, 33. 35- 

Hellenes, see Greeks. 

Hellenistic civilization, spread of, 70-73. 

Hengist and Horsa, 143. 

Henry, Prince, 252-254, 25s; establishes 

school of navigation, 252. 
Henry U, 172-176, 193; established better 

courts. 173-174. 
Henry HI, 181-182; English barons rebel 

against, 182. 
Henry VH, 290, 291. 
Henry VIH, quarrel between Charles V of 

Spain and, 291; separates English 

Church from Roman, 293. 



"Heptarchy," Saxon, 162. 

Herculaneum, 113. 

Hercules, 31. 

Hermann, 131. • 

Holland, 298; discovery of printing in, 248; 
Spain makes peace with, 302; Spain 
recognizes independence of, 303. 

Holy Lance, 230. 

Holy Land, 226, 227, 232; early pilgrimages 
to the, 221-225. 

Homer, 33. 

Horace, 123. 

Horatius, 79. 

Horsa, 143. 

Howard, Lord, 309, 310. 

Hudson, Henry, 303. 

Huguenots, 292; in Florida, 285. 

Hungarians and Crusaders, 228. 

Hungary, 134. 

Huns, 132, 133; defeated at Chalons, 134. 

ICELAND, Vikings in, 161, 263. 

Immigrants, 11-12. 

Inca, the, Pizarro captures, 272-273. 

India, Da Gama reaches, 254; influence of 
Crusades on trade of, 24; race between 
Portugal and Spain to find, 252-264; 
Prince Henry seeks route to, 252-254. 

Indian Ocean, 254. 

Indians, 260, 261; Balboa and the, 266; 
Champlain and the, 288; Coronado and 
the, 275-276; Cortes and the, 269; Be 
Soto and the, 274; missions among the, 
279-280; Spaniards make slaves of, 277- 
280; Vikings and, 264. See also names of 
tribes. 

Indian Wars, French and, 314. 

Industry in the towns of the Middle Ages, 
204-208. 

Innocent III, 220. 

Inventions of the Fifteenth Century, 247- 
251; printing one of the, 248-249; 
cannon one of the, 250; compass one of 
the, 249-250; Gutenberg printing press 
one of the, 249. 

Ireland, Vikings in, 161. 

Iroquois, 288. 

Isabella, Queen, and Columbus, 256. 

Italians, 140, 141. 

Italy, 4, 7, 74-76, 212; Greeks in, 27; Spain 
and France fight over parts of, 282. 

JAMESTOWN, 313. 

Japan, 8. 

Jason, 32. 

Jerusalem, 22, 234; captured by Crusaders, 

232; captured by Saladin's army, 235; 

Kingdom of, 232. 
Jesuits, 293. 

Jesus, 221, 224, 230, 232. 
John, King, 176-180, 220; and Magna 

Carta, 179; and the pope, 176-177; 

revolt of subjects of, 177. 
Journeyman, 206. 
Juno, 29, 31. 
Jupiter, see Zeus. 

KARNAK, temple of, 19. 
Kings, see names of. 



The Index 



xvn 



Knighthood of the Middle Ages, 194-196. 
Kublai Khan, 245. 

LA CHINE RAPIDS, gartier discovers, 285. 

"Land of Columbia," 265. 

Lane, Ralph, 312. 

Langdon, Stephen, 176, 177. 

Las Casas, 278. 

Latium, 76. 

Leiden, siege of, 301; University at, 301. 

Leonidas, King, 51. 

Lighthouse or Pharos of Alexandria, 70 

Lisbon, 243, 255. 

Lombards, 140. 

London, 212-213, 243. 

Longbow, 248. 

Louis, St., 193, 196. 

Loyola, 292. 

Liibeck, 210. 

Luther, Martin, 292, 293; portrait, 291. 

Lutherans, 292. 

MACEDONIA, 64; conquered by the 

Romans, 89. 
Magellan, 267-269; death of, 268; portrait, 

268; reaches Philippine Islands, 268; 

seeks India, 268; voyage of, 267-269. 
"Magna Carta," 179-180. 
Manlius, Marcus, 83. 
Marathon, battle of, 47-49, 55. 
Mars, 30. 
Marseilles, 28. 
Mary, Queen of Scots, 293; Elizabeth and, 

296-297. 
Maryland, Catholics in, 294. 
Massachusetts, 10. 
Master workman, 205, 206, 207. 
Mathematics, Arabs excel in, 225. 
Mavilla (Mobile), 274. 
Mayflower, 9, 10. 
Mecca, 221. 

Mediterranean Sea, 5, 7, 75, 85. 
Menelaus, 33, 35. 
Menendez, in Florida, 286. 
Mercury, 30. 
Mexico, 9, 291; cities of, 270; Cortes in, 

269-271. 
Middle Ages, 141; castles, 186-187; 

chivalry and knighthood, 194-196; 

churches, 215-220; classes of people, 

185-186; commerce, 208-213; farming, 

199-200; feudalism, 190-194; guilds, 205; 

industry, 204-208; nobles, 185-196; 

people, 197-213; religion, 218-220; 

tournaments, 189-190; towns, 202-208; 

warfare, 188-189. 
Milan, 212; battle of, 283. 
Miltiades, 49. 

Missionaries, Christian, 147-149, 314. 
Missions, founding of, 277-280. 
Mississippi, 314; De Soto discovers, 274- 

275- 
Mobile (Mavilla), De Soto at, 274. 
Mohammed, 221, 224. 
Monasteries as schools, 153. 
Monks, 149-154; education among the, 153. 
Montezuma, Cortes and, 270-271; death 

of, 271. 
"Mont Real" (Montreal), 285. 



"Moors" of Spain, 225, 240. 
Moot, see Folk-moot. 
Movable towers, 235, 236. 
Mythology, German, 138-139; Greek, 24- 
36; Roman, 77-80. 

NAPLES, Bay of, 112. 

Navigation, Prince Henry establishes school 

of, 252. 
Negroes as slaves, Spain imports, 279. 
Neptune, 29, 35. 
Nero, 125-126; portrait, 125. 
Netherlands, The, Belgians aid, 300; 

defeat Spain, 301; England aids, 302; 

by William the Silent against Spain, 299- 

302; Philip II oppresses, 298-299; 

revolt of the, 297-299; struggle between 

Spain and, 297-303. 
New England States, 10. 
Newfoundland, Cartier in, 284. 
New Netherland, Dutch colony of, 303; 

gained by the English, 313. 
New York, 11, 286, 303. 
Nicaea, 228; Turks capture, 230. 
Nile River, 15, 19. 
Niiia, 257. 
Ninevah, 20. 

Nobles of the Middle Ages, 185-196. 
Norman conquest, effect upon England, 

170, 171. 
Normandy, 161. 

Normans, 161; in England, 167-171. 
Northmen, 158-161; in England, 163-166; 

religion of, 158; voyages of, 262-264. 
North Sea, 297. 
Norwegians, 263. 
Norwich, 213. 
Nuremburg, Germany, 203, 211. 

OLYMPIA, 45. 

Olympic games, 45. 

Olympus, Mt., 28, 29. 

Oracles, Greek, 44. 

Oxen, crooked-back, see Buffalo. 

PACIFIC OCEAN, 267; Magellan names, 
268. 

Palestine, 22, 46. 

Palos, 257; Columbus at, 256. 

Panama, Balboa sets out for the Isthmus of, 
266; Pizarro in, 271. 

Pantheon, 106, 107. 

Paris, 3, 213. 

Paris, son of Priam, 33. 

Parliament of England, 180-183; has two 
houses, 183; House of Commons estab- 
lished, 182; origin of, 180. 

Parthenon, 59. 

Patagonia, 268. 

Patricians, 80. 

Patroclus, 34. 

Paul, St., 125, 126, 221. 

Peasants of the Middle Ages, 185, 197-202. 

Pelican, 306, 307. 

Penelope, 35. 

Pennsylvania, Presbyterians in, 294. 

Pericles, Age of, 56, 61. 

Persia, influence of Crusades on trade of, 
241. 



xviii The Story of Old Europe and Young America 



Persians, attack Greece, 46-55; overcome 
by Alexander, 68. 

Peru, 291; Pizarro in, 272. 

Peter, St., 125, 126, 221. 

Peter the Hermit, 227, 228. 

Phalanx, Macedonian, 64. 

Pharos or lighthouse of Alexandria, 70. 

Phidias, sq, 61. 

Philadelphia, 11. 

Philip Augustus, 235, 236, 237, 241. 

Philip of Macedon, 64-65; portrait, 65. 

Philip II of Spain, 286, 298; portrait, 297; 
prepares to fight England, 297, 307, 308. 

Philippine Islands, Magellan reaches, 
268. 

Philosophers, Greek, 42,61. See also names 
of. 

Phoenicia, 46. 

Phoenicians, 22-23, 85; alphabet of, 23. 

Picts and Scots, 142. 

Pilgrims, settlers at Plymouth, 10. 

Pilgrims (Christian), 221-243; guidebooks 
of, 222; journeys of the, 221-224; shrines 
visited by, 222. 

Pinta, 257, 261. 

Pinzon, and Columbus, 256. 

Pizarro, Francisco, 271-273; captures the 
Inca, 272-273; in Cuzco, 273; death of, 
273; makes expedition along coast of 
South America, 271; in Peru, 272; por- 
trait, 272. 

Plataea, 47. 

Plato, 42, 60, 6r. 

Plebeians, 80. 

Plow, 248. 

Pluto, 29. 

Plymouth, Mass., 10, 313. 

Pnyx (hill), 39. 

Po River, 76. 

Pocahontas, 313. 

Pole, Reginald, 293; portrait, 292. 

Polo, Marco, 244-247; as a youth, 24s; 
brings knowledge of compass from China, 
249; captured by Genoese, 247; in the 
Far East, 246; printing of book of, 248; 
writes of travels in prison, 247. 

Polos, visit to China of the, 244-246. 

Pompeii, destruction of, 112-114. 

Pompey, 94, 95, 98, 99; bust of, 94; defeated 
by Caesar, 99. 

Ponce de Leon, 273. 

Pope, 219-220. 

Portugal, refuses to aid Columbus, 255; and 
Spain race to find India, 252-264. 

Portuguese and ocean commerce, 243. 

Poseidon, temple of, 25. 

Potato, 312. 

Presbyterians, 292, 294. 

Priam, king of Troy, 33. 

Priest, 218. 

Printing, discovery of, 248-249. 

Protestants, 292, 298, 308; England leader 
of, 297; Hollanders are, 298. 

Ptolemy, Claudius, 70, 72, 73; portrait, 72. 

Public speaking among the Athenians, 39. 

Puritans and Elizabeth, 294-295. 

Pyramids of Egypt, is, 19. 

QUEBEC, Champlain at, 288. 



RALEIGH, Sir Walter, 310-312; as a sol- 
dier, 310; and Queen Elizabeth, 310; tries 
to plant colonies in America, 311-312. 

Rameses II, 17, 18. 

Reformation, 291-294; leaders of the, 292- 
293- 

Religion, 10; Calvinist, 292; Catholic, 292; 
Christian, 224; Congregational, 294; 
Egyptian, 18; Episcopalian, 294; of the 
Germans, 138-139; Greek, 29-31; 
Hebrew, 22; Lutheran, 292; of the 
Middle Ages, 218-220; of the Northmen, 
158; period of the Reformation in, 291- 
294; Presbyterian, 292 ,294; Protestant, 
292; Puritan, 294; early Roman, 76. 

Rhine River, 3, 131, 132, 133, 211, 297. 

Richard the Lion-Hearted, 176, 234, 235, 
236, 237, 238, 241; Blondel the favorite 
minstrel of, 238-239; treaty between 
Saladin and, 237. 

Roads, Roman, 4, 103. 

RoUo, 160. 

Roman Catholic Church, see Catholic 
Church. 

Roman Empire, boundary of the, 102; how 
the Roman Republic became the, 94-104. 

Roman numerals, 240. 

Romans, adopt Greek art, 120; alphabet, 
23; amusements of the, 110-112; Arabs 
adopt learning of the, 224; books, 120- 
122; clothing, 116-117, 118; conquest of 
the, 85-93; education of children, 118- 
119; efifect of victory upon the, 90-93; 
houses, 114-116; method of fighting, 
89-90; mythology, 77-80; religion, 76; 
types of soldiers, 90; wars between 
Carthaginians and, 86-89; wars between 
Germans and, 131-135; writers, 120-124. 

Roman triumph, what it meant, 109. 

Rome, 4, 7, 74-135, 221; aqueducts of, 103; 
baths of, 108; conquered by Caesar, 99; 
decline of , 130-132; downfall of, 132-135; 
government of, 80-82; influence of upon 
the Teutons, 145-161; laws of, 81; plan 
of the city of, 105; plebeians of, 80; 
patricians of, 80; temples and public 
buildings of, 105-108; tribunes of, 81; 
siege of by Gauls, 82-83; wars between 
Carthage and, 86-89. 

Romulus, 78; and Remus. 77. 

Rosetta stone, 16. 

Rubicon, 99. 

Runnymede, battle of, 177. 

SACRED WAY, see Via Sacra. 

St. Albans' monastery, 153. 

St. Augustine, settled by Menendez, 286. 

St. Benedict, 151. 

St. Bernard, 234. 

St. Boniface, missionary, 148. 

St. Johns River, 286. 

St. Lawrence region, French in, 314. 

St. Lawrence River, Cartier discovers the, 

285. 
St. Mark's Church, 242. 
St. Mark's Piazza, 242. 
Saladin, 234, 235. 236; treaty between 

Richard the Lion-Hearted and, 237. 
Salamis, battle of, 53. 55- 



The Index 



Santa Maria, 257. ^ 

Santo Domingo, Balboa settles in, 266. 

Saxons, 136. See also Anglo-Saxons. 

Scandinavia, 158. 

Schools, Arabian, 225; established by Alfred 
the Great, 166; at Leiden, 301; mon- 
asteries as. 153; built by Spaniards in 
Peru and Mexico, 280. See a\so Education. 

Scotland, 142; Vikings in, loi. 

Scots, Picts and, 142; revolt against Mary, 
296. 

Senate, Roman, 78. 

Serfs, 198-199. 

Shetland Islands, 7. 

Sicily, 74. 85; Greeks in, 27. 

Sidney, Sir Philip, aids Dutch, 302. 

Simon de Montfort, Earl, 182; establishes 
House of Commons. 182; leads English 
against Henry III, 182; portrait, 182. 

Slaves, Indians as, 277-280; Las Casas 
friend of, 278; negroes as, 279. 

Socrates, 42, 60, 61-62. 

Song of the Niebelungs, 138-139. 

South America, expedition of Pizarro along 
coast of, 271; Vespucius coasts along 
shore of, 265. 

South Sea, 267. 

Spain, 224; Armada of, 308-309; Colurnbus 
seeks aid from, 255; De Soto's expedition 
e.xtends North American claims for, 275; 
Drake plunders ships of, 306; Drake 
burns ships of, at Cadiz, 308; Dutch 
defeat, 301; and England rivals in 
Europe and America, 290-303; and 
England in sea fight, 305-310; and 
France struggle for possession in America, 
282-289; gives up position as leader in 
Europe, 310; Greeks in, 27; imports 
negroes from Africa as slaves, 279; 
leader of Catholics, 297; loss incurred in 
Spanish-American War by, 310; makes 
last effort to retain colonies in Spanish- 
American War, 314; Mexican mines 
enrich, 271 ; Pizarro and King of, 271 ; and 
Portugal race to find India, 252-264; a 
Roman Catholic nation, 296; makes 
peace with Holland, 302; and its wars, 
303; weakened by wars, 313; William 
the Silent leads Dutch against, 299-302. 

Spaniards, 140, 141; and Indian slavery, 
277-280. 

Spanish-American War, 310, 314. 

Spanish explorers of the New World, 265- 
277. 

Sparta, 37, 47, 51, 64; comparison of 
Athens and, 39; "walls of," 44. 

Spartans, 39, 42-44; as soldiers, 51-52; at 
Thermopylae, 50-52; training of the 
young, 42-43. 

Sphinx, 15. 

Spinning wheel, 248. 

"Stoics," 124. 

Stone-hurling machine, 235, 236. 

Syracuse, 27. 

TARQUIN family, 79. 
Tarquin the Proud, 78. 
Teutons, see Germans. 
Thebes, 64, 65. 



Themistocles, 50, 53. 

Thermopylae, Spartans hold pass at, 50-52. 

Theseus, 32. 

"The Ten," 81. 82. 

Thirty Years' War, close of the, 302-303. 

Thomas d Becket, 175, 221- pilgrims at 

shrine of. 224. 
Thule, Ultima, 7. 
Tiber River, 76. 
Tigris River, 20. 
Tobacco, 312. 
"Toga," 102, 117. 
Tournament, The, 189-190. 
Towns of the Middle Ages, 202-208; 

industry in, 204-208. 
Trade, see Commerce. 
Tribunes, Si. 

Triumph, Roman, 109-110. 
Troy, Siege of, 33-36. 
Turks, and Christians, 227-243; capture 

Nicaea, 230. 

"ULTIMA THULE," 7. 

Ulysses, 33. 34, 35. 

"Union of Utrecht," 300. 

Universities, Arabian, 225. 

University of Leiden, 301. 

Urban, Pope, calls council at Clermont, 226. 

VASSAL, 191-192. 

Vatican, 219. 

Venice, 212, 239, 241-242; and Genoa ene- 
mies, 246; fight between Genoa and. 242. 

Venus, 30. 

Venus di Milo, 26. 

Vercingetorix, 96. 

Vergil, 122. 

Verrazano, 282. 

Vespucius, Americus, 265. 

Vesuvius, Mt., 113. 

"Veto," 81. 

Via Sacra, 109. 

Vikings, 159-160, 161, 163, 166, 263; and 
Indians, 264. 

Vinland, 263. 

Virginia, origin of name, 312; Presbyterians 
in, 294. 

Vulcan, 30, 34. 

WALTER the Penniless, 227, 228. 
Warfare in the Middle Ages, 188-189. 
War in Europe, 5. 
Washington, William the Silent likened to, 

300. 
Welsh, 144. 

Westphalia, Treaty of, 303. 
White, John, 312. 

William the Conqueror, 168, 169, 171, 181. 
William the Silent, 299-302; at Leiden, 301; 

death of, 302. 
Writing, art of, 248. 

XERXES, 50; army of, 50, 51; returns to 
Asia, 54. 

YORK, England, 203. 

ZAMA, battle of, 88. 
Zeus, 29, 30. 
Zunis, 276. 



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